<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" version="2.0"><channel><title>IRIN - Burkina Faso</title><link>http://www.irinnews.org/</link><description>Updated everyday</description><language>en-gb</language><lastBuildDate>Tue, 18 Jun 2013 10:30:52 GMT</lastBuildDate><item><title>Linking early warning to early action in the Sahel</title><pubDate>Tue, 18 Jun 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201203221212520460t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 18 June 2013 (IRIN) - While aid agencies agree that early warning systems offer the chance to mitigate humanitarian crises, difficulty in funding pre-emptive measures and government sensitivities in admitting a looming disaster continue to hamper early action.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 18 June 2013 (IRIN) - While aid agencies agree that early warning systems offer the chance to mitigate humanitarian crises, difficulty in funding pre-emptive measures and government sensitivities in admitting a looming disaster continue to hamper early action.
 
"Most [weather-related] disasters or crises can be predicted," said Sarah Lumsdon, Oxfam's interim regional humanitarian coordinator for West Africa. "In this day and age, there are enough indicators and data, and enough coverage by governments and NGOs to know when things are looking bad or likely will be bad. And so we should be able to intervene to stop it."
 
This is particularly true when it comes to food insecurity in Africa's Sahel [ http://www.irinnews.org/report/96632/sahel-what-went-right-in-the-crisis-response ] region, where drought and serious food shortages left some 18 million people facing hunger in 2012.
 
"Food crises can often be predicted 6-9 months in advance," said Rob Bailey, a senior research fellow at Chatham House and lead author of an April report [ http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Energy,%20Environment%20and%20Development/0413r_earlywarnings.pdf ] on the link between early warning and early action.
 
He said that by monitoring indicators such as grain prices, cereal stocks, crop harvests, weather predictions [ http://acmad.net/new/isacipen/sites/default/files/bulletinpresao16finalfinaljune042013.pdf ] and household food security data, aid agencies and governments can predict a coming food crisis with a fairly high degree of confidence.
 
Aid group Action Against Hunger (ACF) says it has had success in using satellites to monitor pasture and to map biomass production and vegetation levels as well as the scope of drought in order to predict which areas might need the most assistance.
 
"We've used this [method] in the last two crises, in 2010 and 2012, and it's proved to be a good indicator of food production across the region," said Alvaro Pascual, ACF's Sahel desk officer.
 
Funding challenge
 
However, one of the main challenges of responding to early warnings is funding.
 
"Sometimes governments find it hard to justify to the public spending aid money on something that hasn't happened yet, on something which you can't show on the news because people aren't starving yet," Bailey said.
 
The same applies to donors, Oxfam's Lumsdon said. "Their issue is that until it looks really, really bad, they can't release that much money. They can release some money for early action type activities, but when it's a big crisis, it probably is not enough to meet the needs," she said.
 
"What early warnings allow humanitarian agencies to do," said Denise Brown, World Food Programme's (WFP) West Africa director, "is to start to pre-position food aid, to buy stocks of foods and medicine, and place them in strategic locations in the Sahel region knowing that they might need to draw on them at a later date. So they are more prepared, more ready when things get serious."
 
This is what happened during the 2012 Sahel crisis. Following criticism that the response to the 2010 food crisis was too little too late, aid agencies began acting as early as October 2011 when Niger's president announced that the country was expecting a poor harvest and that food stocks were already low.
 
"It was clear that there were serious cereal deficits," said Brown. "And based on that preliminary data we began looking at past data, current market prices, nutritional data and so on, and the picture we came up with was extremely worrying."
 
Early action [ http://www.irinnews.org/report/96638/analysis-sahel-crisis-lessons-to-be-learnt ] plans were put in place and helped reduce the impact of the food crisis across the Sahel. This meant that people didn't have to adopt dangerous coping mechanisms such as selling livestock at low prices to buy food, taking on debt, selling seeds that they should be planting or eating the seeds that they should be planting, Brown explained.
 
Household economy analysis
 
Save the Children uses household economy analysis (HEA) to assess the vulnerability of families in the Sahel based on how they use their income to cope with shocks such as poor harvests or rising food prices. Such information is then presented to governments and donors, and can be used to put early action and contingency plans into place.
 
While data on the impact of early interventions is still scarce, Lumsdon said, a 2012 disaster impact study [ http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/learning-the-lessons-assessing-the-response-to-the-2012-food-crisis-in-the-sahe-281076 ] by Oxfam showed that most families were able to have two meals a day as a result of early interventions and were able to start 2013 in a better state.
 
Similar success was seen in Chad, Brown said. A study [ http://www.ennonline.net/pool/files/reports/enn-report-cash-bsfp-final-report-share.pdf ] by Emergency Nutrition Network, Oxfam and WFP found that introducing preventive nutrition programmes in areas with growing indications of childhood malnutrition, aid workers were able to prevent increases of wasting, mortality and food insecurity during the lean season.
 
ACF says early warnings were instrumental in helping to raise the funds that allowed them to treat some 150,000 under five children for moderate and severe acute malnutrition and to assist 38,000 poor and very poor households that were affected by food insecurity across the Sahel.
 
Cheaper
 
"So there's lots of evidence to show that these things [early intervention] not only work and prevent humanitarian emergency occurring," Bailey said, "but they also, in the long run, are a lot cheaper than waiting until people start to die and then responding later with much more expensive interventions."
 
WFP says studies show that for each dollar invested today in disaster risk reduction, at least four dollars are saved on future spending on relief and rehabilitation.
 
Funding structure is another drawback to early action.
 
"You have humanitarian money and you have development, long-term money, and things like early warning and early action and preparedness money sits somewhere in the middle of those two things," Lumsdon said. "It's very much dependent on long-term intervention, but also it's actually linked to the emergencies and I think donors are really struggling with this sort of dilemma."
 
Governments may sometimes be hesitant to admit there is a looming crisis as it reflects poorly on them politically, said Bailey. And despite improvements in the technology and science used to predict crises, he said some aid agencies still act on the side of caution when responding to early warnings.
 
"We use early warning alerts as a tool to identify places where there could be a problem," said Stéphane Doyon, Médecins Sans Frontières' regional emergency coordinator for West Africa.
 
"But we do so with the assumption that the warnings may or may not be right," he said. "You don't want to be in a situation where you pooled all your resources into one area based on a crisis warning and neglected other areas, because these systems do make errors."
 
Lumsdon said there is also a small risk that the crisis may not end up as bad as predicted.
 
"In that case, if a lot of money went into preparedness and then it doesn't happen, people will say you wasted money because your analysis was wrong.
 
"But to be honest it's all about managing risk and trying to justify why you need to do certain things in advance, why you have to sometimes take that risk, why it sometimes might not be as bad as you thought it would, but ultimately you have to put that money in," she said.
 
WFP's Brown stressed that early warning systems aren't just about ringing alarm bells. They are about thoroughly analysing data and coming up with an action plan that takes the long-term perspective into consideration.
 
"It's not always a perfect system, but it works."
 
jl/ob/aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/98244/Linking-early-warning-to-early-action-in-the-Sahel</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201203221212520460t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 18 June 2013 (IRIN) - While aid agencies agree that early warning systems offer the chance to mitigate humanitarian crises, difficulty in funding pre-emptive measures and government sensitivities in admitting a looming disaster continue to hamper early action.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Digital jobs offer skills, promise to Africa&apos;s unemployed youth</title><pubDate>Tue, 28 May 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201305281532240097t.jpg" />]]>JOHANNESBURG/NAIROBI 28 May 2013 (IRIN) - Although Africa’s economy has expanded rapidly in recent years, it has not kept pace with the growth of its youth population or their need for jobs.</description><body><![CDATA[JOHANNESBURG/NAIROBI 28 May 2013 (IRIN) - Although Africa’s economy has expanded rapidly in recent years, it has not kept pace with the growth of its youth population or their need for jobs. 

With almost 200 million people between 15 and 24 years old - a figure that is set to double by 2045, according to the African Economic Outlook’s (AEO) 2012 report [ http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/in-depth/youth_employment/ ] - the continent has the youngest population in the world. Yet despite the increasing percentage of Africa’s young people with secondary and tertiary educations, many find themselves unemployed or underemployed in the informal economy. Part of the problem, according to the AEO study, is a mismatch between the skills young jobs seekers have to offer and those that employers need. 

The world’s increasingly digitalized economy needs workers with the skills to capture and manage the vast amounts of data it generates. With appropriate training, such tasks can be performed anywhere in the world. Data generated by a high-tech company in Silicon Valley, for example, can be processed by youth with smartphones or tablets living in a slum in Nairobi, Kenya. This means that digital work could potentially alleviate the unemployment and poverty hampering development in many African countries.

Both the private and humanitarian sectors are starting to recognize this potential and find ways to harness it.

Skills for the future

The Rockefeller Foundation recently launched Digital Jobs Africa [ http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/our-work/current-work/digital-jobs-africa ], a seven-year, US$83 million initiative to improve the lives of one million people in six African countries through digital job opportunities and skills training. 

Eme Essien Lore, the foundation’s Nairobi-based senior associate director, explained that having identified youth unemployment as one of Africa’s most pressing problems, the organization was looking for ways to help young people on the continent gain sustainable, long-term job opportunities. 

“The reason digital employment really rose to the top for us was because we saw the skills they get from these kinds of jobs as a springboard to other types of employment,” she told IRIN. “We know young people take time to figure out what they want to do. Also, we don’t know what the future labour market is going to look like. So we thought this was a very important sector because it develops skills they can use whether they stay in the digital economy or move into other sectors.” 

The six focus countries - Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Morocco and South Africa - share particularly high youth unemployment rates and have rapidly developing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructures. Some, such as Nigeria and South Africa, have booming ICT sectors in need of labour, while others, such as Morocco, are well-placed to meet demand from Europe and the US, said Lore. 

Winnie Mwihaki, 24, is among 500 Kenyan youths from poor backgrounds recruited by one of the Rockefeller Foundation’s grantees - San Francisco-based non-profit Samasource. Globally, the company has connected an estimated 3,700 young people in nine countries to paying work and hopes to expand this number to 5,000 by the end of 2013. 

Samasource secures data- and content-processing jobs from its US-based clients, and then uses its specially developed software to break these large digital projects down into small computer-based tasks it calls “microwork”. This work is then distributed to local partners that are responsible for recruiting, training and managing employees. 

Unlike most companies in the business process outsourcing (BPO) and information technology outsourcing industry, Samasource only employs people living below the poverty line. Workers must also be between 18 and 30 years old, and preference is given to women, who are less likely to have access to formal employment. 

“Part of the criteria is that people need to be literate in English,” added Lauren Schulte, director of marketing and communications at Samasource. “They don’t have to have any computer skills. We can bring someone in with virtually no experience, and in a matter of weeks they can start doing small tasks on a computer.”

With her monthly salary of 13,000 shillings [$149], Mwihaki is able to assist her mother, who had been struggling to care for their family of six. “Because of the money I earn from here, I am now able to help my mother [and] to also be a breadwinner in the family,” Mwihaki told IRIN.

Mwihaki grew up in Korogocho, a sprawling slum in Nairobi, where crime is commonplace. She was unable to proceed to college after secondary school because her parents could not afford it.

“Now I will use part of what I earn from this job to sponsor myself through college,” she said. 

A new trajectory

Samasource is not the only company targeting disadvantaged people in low-income areas with digital employment. Another Rockefeller Foundation grantee, Digital Divide Data, operates on a similar principle and employs more than 1,000 people in Cambodia, Kenya and Laos. Both companies are considered pioneers of impact sourcing, which the Rockefeller Foundation defines as “the socially responsible arm of the BPO and information technology outsourcing industry”.

 A relative newcomer to the sector, and another Rockefeller Foundation grantee, is the Impact Sourcing Academy (ISA) in Johannesburg, South Africa. ISA combines a training and job placement programme with a fully functional call centre that gives its students the opportunity to obtain practical work experience while earning enough money to help support their families. 

“We’re not so much interested in just giving them a job as a call centre agent,” said ISA head Taddy Blecher. “We really want to make sure they’re doing part-time studies while they’re working, getting access to more knowledge and training so they can move into higher-level jobs.”

Once graduates are fully employed and earning a decent salary, they are encouraged to fund another student from a similar background. Using this model, the academy is already about 65 percent self-funded and aims to be completely self-funded in the future.

Blecher described the Rockefeller Foundation initiative as “a massive opportunity” for South Africa, given the need for skilled labour to work in its booming BPO sector and its 51 percent youth unemployment rate. “In a short period of time, you can bring a family out of poverty and put them on a whole new trajectory,” he told IRIN.

Opening doors

For now, evidence that impact sourcing really can lift families out of poverty is limited to the small studies the Rockefeller Foundation has conducted with Samasource and Digital Divide Data. “What we want to do next is really measure the impacts on a household level,” said Lore. “Anecdotally, we’re quite convinced, but we need to work on measuring over the next seven years.”

The Rockefeller Foundation does not stipulate a minimum wage that its grantees must pay, and the line between a living wage and an exploitatively low wage can be a fine one. “This is a sector where companies’ first priority is really around cost savings,” acknowledged Lore. “If you take the example of someone living in a slum, [a job like this] won’t get them into a nicer neighbourhood. But it might be able to buy food for the family and get younger siblings into school,” she said.

She added that the demand for young people with these skills is such that they are often poached by rival companies offering slightly higher salaries. “We’ve seen that when people move from these jobs, usually after about two years, they go on to better jobs. You rarely see people sitting in these types of jobs indefinitely.”

ks/ko/rz

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/98114/Digital-jobs-offer-skills-promise-to-Africa-apos-s-unemployed-youth</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201305281532240097t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">JOHANNESBURG/NAIROBI 28 May 2013 (IRIN) - Although Africa’s economy has expanded rapidly in recent years, it has not kept pace with the growth of its youth population or their need for jobs.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Analysis: Slowing Nigerian grain trade threatens Sahel food security</title><pubDate>Mon, 27 May 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201203221201390320t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR/KANO 27 May 2013 (IRIN) - Northern Nigeria’s grain trade, which supplies almost half of the Sahel’s cereals, has slowed severely, while abnormally high prices of staple grains across the Sahel are causing serious food security concerns in this chronically vulnerable region.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR/KANO 27 May 2013 (IRIN) - Northern Nigeria’s grain trade, which supplies almost half of the Sahel’s cereals, has slowed severely, while abnormally high prices of staple grains across the Sahel are causing serious food security concerns in this chronically vulnerable region.

The areas most at risk are southeastern and central Niger, which are highly dependent on Nigerian grain flows, as well as northern Nigeria and northern Benin. Chad is somewhat protected from the dynamic, as it produced a healthy harvest in 2012, says FEWS NET.

World Food Programme (WFP) market analysts report that grain supply is low in many of the main markets across the region, and that fewer traders from Niger and elsewhere are crossing the border to re-supply in Nigeria. Cross-border trade is significantly down in Nigeria’s Maigatari market (near Zinder in Niger), Illela (near Tahoua), Jibya (near Maradi) and Damassack (near Diffa), according to WFP.

In highly import-dependent Niger, “this situation must raise a red flag,” said WFP market analyst Jean-Martin Bauer, referring to poor trade conditions that spurred Niger’s 2005 and to some extent the 2010 food crises. “If trade slows down from Nigeria to Niger, it’s a huge issue for all countries depending on Nigeria,” he said.

In the worst-affected areas, staple grain prices are higher than in 2012 when the region experienced a widespread food crisis. A 100kg bag of maize in Kano, the region’s largest grains market, cost 7,400 Nigerian naira (US$47) in March 2013, compared to 6,000 naira ($38) the same time last year; while a 100kg bag of millet cost 8,000 naira ($51) in March 2013, versus 7,500 naira ($47) last year.

The poorest families in the Sahel are entirely dependent on markets for foods and may spend 80 percent of their household income on food, according to ECHO. “High prices lock these people out of the market,” said European Union aid body ECHO’s Sahel coordinator Hélène Berton.

Why deficits?

The problem is multi-faceted but in northern Nigeria, local deficits - because of widespread flooding [ http://www.irinnews.org/report/96504/NIGERIA-Worst-flooding-in-decades ] last year are being compounded by insecurity, according to FEWS NET markets and trade adviser Sonja Melissa Perakis.

Further, many producers of millet and tubers in Nigeria turned to cash crops last year, causing a deficit in these staple grains, points out a May 2013 FEWS NET report [ http://www.fews.net/docs/Publications/West_SR_Nigeria%20Impact_050413.pdf ]. Millet production in northern Nigeria, for instance, declined by 13 percent in 2012, as compared to the five-year average.

The Boko Haram insurgency [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/98076/Analysis-Nigerians-on-the-run-as-military-combat-Boko-Haram ] forced many farmers southwards away from their fields this planting season, said Aminu Mohammed, secretary of the Dawanau Grain Traders Association in Kano, an umbrella union comprising the largest cereals market in West Africa. At the same time, ongoing fighting and outright conflict between Boko Haram and Nigerian security forces has kept traders lying low in recent months. Many transporters are too scared to cross borders.

Nigerian’s emergency agency NEMA estimates 65 percent of farmers in northeastern Nigeria’s fertile Lake Chad basin have fled southwards to escape Boko Haram-related violence.

FEWS NET and WFP are currently assessing the drivers of the dynamic and will produce a report soon.

In many Sahelian countries, millet and maize production was up in 2012. However, a 6 percent decline in Nigerian production of these grains (as well as yams and cassava) in 2012 offset three-quarters of the gain seen elsewhere - because of the size of the Nigerian market, according to FEWS NET.

“Economic engine” broken down

Farmers, herders and traders from other countries rely on Nigeria, with its population of 162.5 million and its economic might, as the most important market for their products. Severely depleted demand in Nigeria for cash crops such as sesame, and for livestock, is driving down prices. “Nigeria is the economic engine of West Africa - if it breaks down, there’s trouble,” said Bauer.

Typically a pastoralist from Niger can trade a goat for 100kg of millet with a Nigerian trader, but in April 2013 a goat fetched just 93kg, according to WFP’s market information system in Niger’s Abalak market in Tahoua Region.

Another result of the situation is abnormal trade flows, with maize and millet being exported to Nigeria from Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger rather than the other way round, according to FEWS NET.

“Don’t waste time”

Aid efforts need to be scaled up, said ECHO’s Berton, as the few humanitarian agencies present in northern Nigeria “are overstretched”.
“The food crisis that is presently looming in Nigeria needs more resources… It could have serious repercussions in neighbouring countries,” she said.

ECHO, one of the principal humanitarian donors to the Sahel, gave 9.8 million euros to Nigeria to fund nutrition, cash transfers, livelihoods and other projects, mainly in the north and to flood-affected areas; this is relatively little compared to the 55 million euros given for emergency response to both Chad and Niger.

WFP gives families in Niger 32,500 CFA ($65) per month, up from 25,000 ($50) two years ago. The amount might need to be raised further, given the falling value of the cash due to high prices. “We could at least compensate for that,” he added.

This could work where food is available, said FEWS NET’s market adviser in Mali, Louali Ibrahim. In other areas emergency food aid will be needed. “There is no one-size-fits-all solution to this problem.”

Thanks to the resilience debate [ http://www.irinnews.org/In-Depth/97594/105/Building-resilience ], the Sahel is still on the map this year following last year’s food crisis, said Bauer, but severe funding shortfalls remain. WFP needs $312 million in food and cash to fund its Sahel response from May to December 2013, he added.

The Sahel funding appeal was only 28 percent funded as of 24 May, despite the lean season being fully under way [ http://wca.humanitarianresponse.info/fr/system/files/documents/files/FundingUpdates%2017MAY%202013.pdf ].

National response

In most countries national governments are constrained by depleted national emergency stocks, having exhausted them in the 2012 Sahel crisis response, according to Ibrahim. Most national stocks are under 50 percent replenished, says FEWS NET.

To get out of the current mess, governments and traders must not restrict regional trade flows, warned Bauer. “Markets in the Sahel support food security. When they do not operate well, we see problems at the household level,” he said. “We saw that in 2005; we saw it in 2010… We need fluidity of trade.”

While no official trade barriers have been put in place, it is impossible to say what happens unofficially, said Ibrahim. Governments must try to reduce customs duty and hassle for transporters to the degree that they can. “Otherwise we’ll just see a bad situation get worse.”

But tensions are mounting in the marketplace, according to Mohammed of the Dawanau Grain Traders Association. The combination of low supply and high demand from Niger is putting a serious strain on the local market in the north, where grain stockpiles are severely depleted, he said. “Nigerien traders are mopping up whatever grains they can lay their hands on,” he said. Many traders pay cash in advance, he said, giving them an edge over local consumers.

“We sometimes go to villages to glean [buy] whatever we find at local markets to avoid completely running out of stock.”

He anticipates things will get worse during Ramadan in July, when demand for millet is predicted to soar. The price of millet has risen month-on-month since February, he said.

aj/aa/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/98105/Analysis-Slowing-Nigerian-grain-trade-threatens-Sahel-food-security</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201203221201390320t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR/KANO 27 May 2013 (IRIN) - Northern Nigeria’s grain trade, which supplies almost half of the Sahel’s cereals, has slowed severely, while abnormally high prices of staple grains across the Sahel are causing serious food security concerns in this chronically vulnerable region.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Making WASH work in Burkina Faso’s cities</title><pubDate>Fri, 17 May 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201305161656290386t.jpg" />]]>OUAGADOUGOU 17 May 2013 (IRIN) - Earlier this year Denis Ouedraogo, a tailor living in the Tampouy neighbourhood just north of Burkina Faso’s capital Ouagadougou, connected his mud-walled home to the water network for the first time. “Even without electricity, having enough water can make you happy,” he said.</description><body><![CDATA[OUAGADOUGOU 17 May 2013 (IRIN) - Earlier this year Denis Ouedraogo, a tailor living in the Tampouy neighbourhood just north of Burkina Faso’s capital Ouagadougou, connected his mud-walled home to the water network for the first time. “Even without electricity, having enough water can make you happy,” he said.

He is among 1.9 million people to have connected to the government water grid since 2001, thanks to major changes in how the National Office for Water and Sanitation (ONEA) delivers water to urban Burkinabés.

In 2001 just 73,000 Burkinabés could access clean water, according to research [ http://www.developmentprogress.org/sites/developmentprogress.org/files/burkina_water_progress.pdf ] by Peter Newborne at the Overseas Development Institute, which is trying to track and communicate examples of progress on development [ http://www.developmentprogress.org/ ].

In 2002 just half of Burkina Faso residents had access to clean water. In 2008 (the latest statistics available) this had risen to 76 percent - 95 percent in urban areas. The plan was to reach the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) to double the number of those with access to clean water, in this case to 87 percent, by 2015. Those tracking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) progress in Burkina Faso, say the goal will be surpassed [ http://www.unicef.org/sowc2012/pdfs/SOWC-2012-TABLE-3-HEALTH.pdf ].

How?

A number of factors made this possible: ONEA was nationalized and restructured in 1994 following a period in which it had become unprofitable and poorly functioning. The new national company ran along commercial lines, instilling a culture of performance and efficiency, said Newborne.

The second priority was to find a bulk water supply, in this case by building the Ziga dam 45km from the capital.

A mixture of government grant funds (from France and other European donors) and concessionary loans at low interest rates (predominantly from the World Bank), provided the required finances. This helped them bring costs down: for instance, connecting to the grid now costs a household US$61, down from on average $400 in the 1990s, according to ONEA’s chief operating officer, Moumouni Sawadogo.

Next came the work: building a network of pipes throughout Ouagadougou, including in the city’s unzoned [unplanned]  suburbs, which house one third of the capital’s residents and had hitherto been overlooked in terms of household water supply.

“Even in non-zoned areas, people can pay their water bills,'' said Halidou Kouanda, head of NGO Wateraid in Burkina Faso, citing a 2011 ONEA study noting that financial recovery rates in unzoned neighbourhoods were 95 percent.

Now, with a steady income and an 18 percent leakage rate, ONEA is one of the best-performing water utility companies in sub-Saharan Africa, according to the World Bank.

Targeting the poor

While targeting unzoned areas upped the percentage of urban dwellers who could access clean water (thus helping to meet the MDG), it did not ensure that water was affordable.

Now ONEA needs to try to target the poor, as it pledged to do in an initial equity strategy agreed with the Ministry of Water and Sanitation.

As part of its strategy, ONEA built 17,290 wells and standpipes for some areas without household-level connections. Water from a standpipe costs 60 CFA (11 US cents) for a 220 litre barrel (transported on wheels). But the very poor cannot afford such barrels, turning instead to water vendors who sell the same amount for 200-500 CFA (40-98 cents) depending on the season.

Thus paradoxically, the poorest families pay up to eight times more than others for their water.

ODI is discussing different pro-poor targeting methods that might work, including: subsidizing part of the water supply for certain households; targeting poor areas; allocation by housing type; means-testing; community-based targeting; or self-targeting.

At the moment, all households are charged the same connection tariff. “Is this equitable? We think not,” said Newborne. “You could means-test it; you could waive the connection charge for some; or charge the first X cubic metres at a different rate,” he suggested, adding that lower-income households could pay bills weekly or on a pay-as-you-go basis, to keep track of costs. “Think of how mobile phone companies have fixed their pricing plans to be accessible,” he said.

The concern is that households who experience running water for the first time may use more than they can afford, then falling behind  and drop off the grid, said WaterAid’s Kouanda. This happened to 6.8 percent of Ouagadougou’s ONEA customers in 2009.

Families must be made aware of this risk, said Kouanda. But many customers are so nervous of this happening, that they practice their own careful monitoring.

Ami Sidibé, who lives in Somgandé neighbourhood, which was connected to the water mains three months ago, said she continues to fill jerry cans - using tap water - to monitor her household’s use. “I’ll do anything to avoid returning to the situation before,” she told IRIN.

Reduced disease risk?

No studies have yet been published linking the spread of the water network with the incidence of disease, but some Somgandé residents who were recently connected to the grid said their children were falling sick less frequently. Water-borne illnesses are among the top five reasons for children’ health visits, according to the Health Ministry.

Future challenges will include how to extend such networks to rural areas, which are currently under-serviced in terms of clean water: 72 percent of rural Burkinabés access clean water, versus 95 percent of city residents.

The local authorities are responsible for rural water supply under Burkina Faso’s decentralized governance system.

According to a just-published report Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2013 Update [ http://www.unicef.org/media/media_69091.html ] by UNICEF and the World Health Organization, striking disparities remain between rural and urban water access, with rural communities making up 83 percent of the global population without access to an improved water source.

bo/aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/98054/Making-WASH-work-in-Burkina-Faso-s-cities</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201305161656290386t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">OUAGADOUGOU 17 May 2013 (IRIN) - Earlier this year Denis Ouedraogo, a tailor living in the Tampouy neighbourhood just north of Burkina Faso’s capital Ouagadougou, connected his mud-walled home to the water network for the first time. “Even without electricity, having enough water can make you happy,” he said.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Mounting crisis for conflict-hit northern Mali pastoralists</title><pubDate>Mon, 08 Apr 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201208030828110882t.jpg" />]]>MOPTI/BAMAKO 08 April 2013 (IRIN) - Ongoing fighting and the fear of reprisal killings has severely disrupted normal migration patterns for pastoralists in northern Mali, putting them and their families in danger of severe food insecurity and poverty as the lean season approaches.</description><body><![CDATA[MOPTI/BAMAKO 08 April 2013 (IRIN) - Ongoing fighting and the fear of reprisal killings has severely disrupted normal migration patterns for pastoralists in northern Mali, putting them and their families in danger of severe food insecurity and poverty as the lean season approaches.

The regions of Gao and Timbuktu remain volatile, with sporadic attacks and banditry. The most recent attack in Timbuktu, on 30 March, involved an attempted suicide bombing. Military operations in northern Kidal Region’s Ifoghas mountains have come to an end, but the region is far from secure, and tensions persist over the control of Kidal town by the Tuareg independence group the MNLA.

Limited migration, rise in tension

Insecurity has caused pastoralists to disperse widely across the north, but has also limited the migration routes of some for fear of violence. Thousands of Tuareg and Arab herders have taken refuge in neighbouring countries, too afraid of reprisal attacks to return to Mali’s pastoral zone north of the Niger River [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97386/Killings-disappearances-in-Mali-s-climate-of-suspicion ].

According to the Mali head of the NGO Action against Hunger, Franck Vanatelle, herders have mainly either headed north towards Kidal or northern Gao, or have stayed by the river in Gao and Timbuktu. According to Agronomists and Veterinarians without Borders (AVSF), criminality and banditry are very high in market areas in this zone.

Herders are gathering near the Mauritanian and Burkina Faso borders in the east, which is upping tensions between herders and farmers, said AVSF head Marc Chapon.  

Experts fear that the southward movement of French military forces to the riverine pastoralist zones of Gao and Timbuktu will further disrupt herder movements as they flee potential violence.   

Looted stocks, fodder out of reach

Over the course of 2012, herders in the occupied north lost considerable stocks as Islamist groups either seized their animals or bought them at very low prices. Mohamed Ould Rhissa, a pastoralist in Timbuktu, told IRIN, “I lost half of my herd during the occupation [of the north]. I had more than 200 animals, but now I have about 50 left. The jihadists came each week to take whichever ones they wanted.”

Rhissa says he can no longer feed his 50 remaining animals; a bag of fodder is up from US$15 before the occupation to $40 now, and there is not enough pasture just outside of Timbuktu, where his animals remain, to feed them. “I don’t know what I’ll do with them - it’s hard to find water, pasture, people who have money to buy them. I can’t migrate because of the insecurity. It’s really sad.”

Fodder is also largely unavailable as many of the big fodder traders have fled the country. Other suppliers who usually come from southern Nigeria to exchange fodder for food are staying put this year, according to Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET).

Gao resident Oumarou Ag told IRIN some herders are simply giving their animals away to the military as they cannot afford to feed them. Some of those who managed to migrate south, to the river valley around Mopti, have had to sell their animals at very low prices.

“In Gao, the livestock sector will have to be completely overhauled, otherwise it will be a catastrophe,” he told IRIN.

Animal markets paralyzed

The closure of the Algerian border means no animal markets are functioning 50km north of the river, in Timbuktu and Gao. Almost all the commercial exchange taking place is between small traders who exchange food for animals.

While the price of animals is traditionally on the rise this time of year, it cannot keep up with the soaring price of cereals, creating poor terms of trade. According to recent assessments, cereal prices are up to 70 percent higher than the five-year average in some parts of the north, sparking concern of mounting food insecurity.

Pastoralists who have gone to markets in Gao town say they cannot sell their animals as no one is around or able to buy them.

Pastoralists have considerably cut their meat and milk consumption, according to the World Food Programme, which did not give figures.

Even in a normal year, pastoralists’ difficult season starts in around April or May, when pasture starts to run out, while the lean season for farmers will worsen between April and June.

“We feel abandoned,” said Rhissa. “No one is helping us. NGOs give food for people, but none of them - nor the government - thinks of us. Livestock will soon become a ghost sector.”

Government absent

For the past year, the government has been more or less absent from the north, meaning all official animal support activities have stopped. According to AVSF’s Chapon, the only veterinary and vaccination operations to take place in the north - in northern Gao and Timbuktu - have been theirs, meaning overall coverage for animals is very low.

“High concentrations of animals in certain valleys, areas near lakes and other bodies of water mean there is a strong risk of diseases breaking out,” said Chapon, who urged agencies and the government to decide whether a mass vaccination campaign would be feasible in 2013. But vaccination coverage would likely be hampered by the constant power cuts in the north, which would make it difficult and expensive to maintain a vaccine cold chain.

AVSF is setting up three mobile animal and person health teams in the northern Timbuktu and Gao regions, as well as six health posts. The NGO is also considering re-stocking animals for families who lost a lot of their livestock either through looting, as a result of the 2011-2012 crisis, or because they fled, leaving their animals behind.

aj/kh/sd/rz

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97799/Mounting-crisis-for-conflict-hit-northern-Mali-pastoralists</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201208030828110882t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">MOPTI/BAMAKO 08 April 2013 (IRIN) - Ongoing fighting and the fear of reprisal killings has severely disrupted normal migration patterns for pastoralists in northern Mali, putting them and their families in danger of severe food insecurity and poverty as the lean season approaches.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Call to end neglect of emergency education in Mali</title><pubDate>Fri, 15 Mar 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210050938270763t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 15 March 2013 (IRIN) - Aid workers and experts are calling for more attention to education in Mali, where 200,000 children are out of school due to the crisis but where money for emergency education has yet to come forward.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 15 March 2013 (IRIN) - Aid workers and experts are calling for more attention to education in Mali, where 200,000 children are out of school due to the crisis but where money for emergency education has yet to come forward. 

Though most schools in northern Mali are closed or thinly staffed, and thousands of children risk missing two years of schooling, donors have once again de-prioritized education to focus on what they say are more direct life-saving activities. 

The 2013 humanitarian appeal for Malis calls for US$18 million to fund emergency education activities this year. So far nothing has been pledged [ http://fts.unocha.org/reports/daily/ocha_R32_A985___14_March_2013_(12_42).pdf ]. The Sahel-wide call for $36 million (including the above), has also received no pledges [ https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/pub?key=0AusGu5uwbtt-dGY4Y0VFQWNOejUyQWNsXzFJT1YxMXc&single=true&gid=5&output=html ].

Last year within the emergency appeals in Mali, Chad and Mauritania, emergency education was funded at 6.4 percent, 14.5 percent and 0 percent respectively. 

UNICEF has been able to mobilize just under US$3 million for emergency education activities from other funding sources.

"Most of the donors have drawn back after the [2012] crisis - we are still trying to mobilize as much funding as possible," Euphrates Gobina, head of education at UNICEF in Mali, told IRIN.

Emergency education advocates have for years tried to leverage more funding and awareness for the importance of education activities in emergency response, but while some progress has been made [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/81437/GLOBAL-Emergency-education-gains-ground ] - including minimum standards for emergency education response - the money often does not come through. 

Education activities made up just 0.9 percent of global received humanitarian funding in 2012.

The UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) says dozens of schools in the north have been closed, destroyed, looted or, in places, contaminated with unexploded ordnance. It estimates the education of 700,000 children across Mali has been disrupted by the crisis. 

In the north, some 5 percent of schools have reopened in Timbuktu; a handful in Kidal; and more in Gao, but only 28 percent of teachers were estimated to have returned to work there as of the end of February, said UNICEF.

Many teachers are too afraid to return to the north, while already overcrowded schools in the south cannot cope with the influx. 

"The school year is three semesters. If you lose four months, you lose the school year," warned Youssuf Dembélé, who is teaching displaced northern Malians in the central town of Mopti. Funding for the over-stretched school rarely comes in, he said. "It's too willy nilly. It's not well-organized. They say money is coming, but it never does."

Disconnect

The problem is that while parents and children prioritize education in emergency response, donors tend not to. The 2012 Sahel crisis was seen by donors as a food security and malnutrition crisis, thus sectors that are linked to this but seen as tangential, such as water and sanitation, health and education, were neglected.

"Parents ask for it [education]," said Lori Heninger, director of the International Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE). "Droughts are usually slow-onset and are not going to go away. How do you say to people in a chronic drought scenario: we're going to give you food, water and shelter - what does that mean for the development of the child, and for the development of that society in general?"

"If there are ways to learn about how to use the land in this changing paradigm, that will only happen through education," she added.

Ample evidence has been collected over the years demonstrating how important it is for children to return to school - for their psychosocial well-being, to help safeguard them in crises [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/82272/GLOBAL-Does-emergency-education-save-lives ], and to enable their parents to rebuild their lives while their children are at school. However, such evidence appears to have had only a marginal impact in long-term crises like the Sahel's. 

"It's changing slowly," said Heninger, "but given the fact that 80 percent of what we call crises are long-term in nature, the fact that 0.9 percent of last year's humanitarian budget went to education, is pretty abysmal." 

Sector already stressed pre-crisis

While immediate help is needed to save the school year for Malian students, the long-term support donors give to education in Mali has also been severely depleted following donor cuts [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96049/MALI-Not-a-fragile-state-yet ] in response to the March 2012 coup d'état. 

Big donors, including the European Commission, USA, the Netherlands, Canada and others, withdrew donor support to the government following the coup. Half of the 2012 education budget was donor-fed. 

Some donors, such as the Netherlands, tried to find ways to keep up the funding and redirect it away from the Education Ministry towards NGOs; the Canadian International Development Agency redirected some of its funding for school materials directly to UNICEF.

Since the transitional government adopted a transition roadmap in January 2013, many donors, including the European Commission, restarted aid with education a priority. But severe gaps remain.

"Before the crisis the education system was already challenged in Mali," said UNICEF's Gobina. "An already stressed system has received displaced children in many schools: class sizes have ballooned, there are not enough materials - the infrastructure was just not prepared for this emergency." 

But a lesson to be applied in future is to include emergency education in overall education sector planning, particularly in crisis-prone countries, said Gobina. 

Refugee education

The lack of emergency education funding is a disincentive for the many qualified teachers who are volunteering in makeshift schools to teach their former pupils. 

Masa Mohamed, from Timbuktu, is teaching many of her former pupils at a school in Mbéra refugee camp in eastern Mauritania. But there are big differences: she used to teach 30 per class, now she must handle up to 100. "We don't have enough teachers, we don't have enough schools, we just teach in a tent, there are no desks, and it's very difficult." NGO Intersos pays her a small fee for her work, but most of the teachers are not paid. 

Ahmed Ag Hamama was a school director in Timbuktu. His old school has opened, he said, but it has no students or teachers. His school's 400 former students are in Mopti, Ségou, Kayes and Bamako in Mali, as well as in Mauritania and Burkina Faso, he said. 

Some 15 Malian refugee teachers are teaching in Mbéra, most of them paid with a small food ration. "It is not enough - life is very expensive here. Conditions are not good, and there is not enough food," he said commenting on the World Food Programme family ration size. 

"A guardian will be paid 90,000 ouguiya ($300 per month) but a teacher is not paid," he complained. 

Teachers in refugee camps in Niger, Burkina Faso and Mauritania, as well as in Mali, said displaced children showed signs of trauma. Many of them are just "not there", said Konaté Souleymane who is teaching in Goudeba camp in northern Burkina Faso. "Students are distracted, their minds are elsewhere."

UNICEF is trying to work with the Education Ministry in Bamako to find ways to get teachers working in the north, said Gobina.

According to school prinicpal Hamama, who is an ethnic Tuareg like most of the refugees in Mbéra, two fellow Tuareg teachers had recently left Mbéra to pick up their salaries in Bamako, but they were held at gunpoint for 24 hours. 

"We can't go back to Mali [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97585/The-returns-challenge-in-Mali ] if this is the situation," he said. 

aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97656/Call-to-end-neglect-of-emergency-education-in-Mali</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210050938270763t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 15 March 2013 (IRIN) - Aid workers and experts are calling for more attention to education in Mali, where 200,000 children are out of school due to the crisis but where money for emergency education has yet to come forward.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Analysis: The R-word - Rhetoric versus reality in the Sahel</title><pubDate>Mon, 04 Mar 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201204101102070655t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 04 March 2013 (IRIN) - The annual gearing-up of humanitarian programmes to treat the chronic problems of vulnerable Sahelians is a clear sign that development there is not working. As a result, the Sahel is at the centre of the debate on the need to boost vulnerable people&apos;s resilience to shocks.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 04 March 2013 (IRIN) - The annual gearing-up of humanitarian programmes to treat the chronic problems of vulnerable Sahelians is a clear sign that development there is not working. As a result, the Sahel is at the centre of the debate on the need to boost vulnerable people's resilience to shocks.

Donors are starting to shift their approach, notably the Sahel's biggest humanitarian donors European aid body ECHO and the US Agency for International Development (USAID), but development donors remain behind, and donor fatigue means vulnerable Sahelians this year risk missing out on emergency aid, let alone aid to build their resilience.

The US$1.66 billion humanitarian and resilience appeal for the Sahel in 2013 is 5 percent funded as of 1 March [ http://wca.humanitarianresponse.info/fr/document/sahel-funding-status ].

"People are clearly distracted or are looking away from the region or largely through a security lens," said Oxfam's Sahel campaigner Elise Ford. "The challenge is how are you to make good on the resilience rhetoric. How do we consider this appeal?. Despite all the talk of resilience in 2012 we've seen very little from donors on how they're going to finance it."

Sahel resilience meetings are being held globally - a meeting was held in Rome last week; another is being held now in Dakar, "but there seems to be a time lag: what is happening right now?" said Ford.

For farmers to harvest their crops this year they need adequate seeds by May - this is mere survival, quite apart from embracing a more ambitious resilience agenda. According to a World Food Programme (WFP) study in Niger, it takes families three years to recover from a food security shock, and that is if harvests are good for three years running.

Agencies need more money, not less, to make resilience happen in the Sahel, starting from 2013, stressed Jan Eijkenaar, ECHO's resilience and AGIR (Alliance Globale pour l'Initiative Resilience) focal point in the Sahel. But the way things are going, "there won't be enough time to do resilience properly this year," he told IRIN, noting it will take decades to get resilience right over the long term.

Political commitment

Having said that, many donors and national governments have understood the need to put resilience at the heart of Sahel programming. The most prominent example is the inter-governmental and inter-agency AGIR-Sahel initiative [ http://ec.europa.eu/echo/news/2012/sahel_conference_2012_en.htm ] to build resilience in the Sahel, which has brought together all sorts of actors, including the European Commission (which leads it), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the West Africa Economic and Monetary Union, the Permanent Inter-State Committee to Fight Drought in the Sahel (CILSS), the Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC).

"Resilience is a priority now because of flawed development and governance," said Jan Eijkenaar, ECHO's Sahel lead on resilience and the AGIR initiative. We have an opportunity not to fail over the next 20 years. The AGIR declaration gives us the tools and scope to do so."

Globally, donors have promoted resilience on a wide scale over recent years, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Bank are also promoting it, having realized that the impact of their development investments has been insufficient, says French research group Urgence, Réhabilitation et Développement (URD) [ http://www.urd.org/ ].

Greater scrutiny of aid expenditure

The backdrop to this has been the financial crisis in Europe and the US, which has led to more scrutiny of how existing aid money is used. The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) analysed development portfolios and assessed that some had increased risk and poverty rather than building resilience. Further, the 2011 fourth High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness agreed a new approach to dealing with fragile states, with resilience at its heart [ http://www.urd.org/Resilience-or-the-capacity-for ].

However, the aid architecture as it currently stands, is not ready to embrace resilience yet. While certain actors have made progress in this vein - for instance the UN's common humanitarian action plans - a lot more holistic planning is needed.

More integrated planning

Holistic planning is easier said than done. USAID has come furthest in this area, setting up a joint resilience strategic cell made up of experts from agriculture, climate change, nutrition, health and food security, which work on joint plans to figure out how to put the most vulnerable people's coping strategies at the centre, said Chris Tocco, deputy director of USAID in West Africa.

Other donors, such as ECHO, work with more unwieldy funding mechanisms, which make it much more difficult to set up integrated resilience planning cells. But ECHO's Eijkenaar recognizes that "stubborn sectoral, institutional, cultural and national needs must be overcome," as stated in a January 2013 presentation on the AGIR initiative, in which he encouraged donors and practitioners to get out of their silos.

François Grünewald, head of URD, likens resilience in practice to cooking. "Integration would be like Thai cuisine (where the flavours of each ingredient can be distinguished from the others) in contrast to merging, which would be like Chinese cuisine (in which all the flavours are combined into a single flavour)," says the February 2013 edition of its magazine Humanitarian Aid on the Move.

What does not work is when aid agencies and donors start labelling any and every activity as "resilience-focused", he noted. As the R-word gets bandied about in ever-wider circles, it has cropped up in unexpected places. For instance, according to URD, the US internal security website currently states that its main objective is resilience rather than security.

Integrated programming will also, of course, require humanitarian and development actors to work together, something which the current aid architecture does not make easy. "It will take a long time for these different cultures to understand one another," said Sidi Mohammed Khattry, head of mission for the Mauritanian prime minister at a Dakar resilience workshop on 26 February.

Different approaches to resilience

Currently, despite a common definition of resilience, as articulated through AGIR ("the capacity of vulnerable households, families and systems to face uncertainty and the risk of shocks, to withstand and respond effectively to shocks, as well as to recover and adapt in a sustainable manner"), donors in the Sahel are approaching resilience through very different lenses. For instance, ECHO sees it through a malnutrition lens; USAID is more food security-focused; while the UN Development Programme orients itself towards system-wide development and governance.

Other factors to bear in mind in order for resilience to work: Development actors must shift their targeting from broad macro-economic priorities to address the poorest of the poor (roughly 20 percent of the Sahel's population). "To date the ultra-poor have been invisible to them," Eijkenaar told IRIN, partly he said, because they largely limit themselves to capital cities, while humanitarians work with the most vulnerable, no matter where they are.

On targeting in agriculture for instance, Peter Gubbels, West Africa expert at research group Groundswell International, told IRIN: "It is essential to promote agriculture that is not just productivity-oriented, but multi-functional and targeted to the needs of the more vulnerable based in the most risk-prone, ecologically fragile zones - not in the high potential agricultural zones."

By multi-functional, he means agriculture that focuses on productivity, adaption to climate change, sustainability, and that is nutrition-oriented.

For Oxfam's Ford, it is vital to find a balance between bottom-up and top-down programming: "Focusing on the very vulnerable is vital, but you also need good governance to create the political space for the focus on vulnerable households to happen," she said.

Humanitarian and development actors must build upon the work that has already gone into resilience - notably from sustainable development, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation experts, all of whom have been working on resilience-building for years. The 2005 Hyogo Framework for Action [ http://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa ] on building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters, is a clear start.

While it sounds like common sense, resilience must be built around the priorities and existing assets of affected communities, say aid workers. Upcoming research by Oxfam reveals that communities themselves prioritize resilience and have myriad ways of coping with shocks: any aid they get they hope will reinforce these activities.

National governments must not be sidelined, and more resilience programming and funding should be channelled through those that are able to take it on, say analysts.

Finally, measuring resilience is important, and benchmarks of success need to be addressed alongside efforts to define what comes after the 2015 Millennium Development Goals. An AGIR team is currently working on success benchmarks - some of which may include the rate of malnutrition, under-two mortality, food insecurity, the humanitarian assistance burden, the proportion of a population's least resilient, people's purchasing power, cost of diet and food diversity scores, among many other aspects, said Eijkenaar. The Hyogo Framework for Action is a good reference for wider-scale benchmarks, say analysts.

The money

Thus far, the funding breakdown for resilience in the Sahel is not clear. The European Commission's DEVCO mobilized 164.5 million euros in 2012 for the Sahel crisis, part of which was used to advance resilience this year and next, said Eijkenaar. ECHO is already "resilience-friendly" in its approach to aid, he said, for instance by integrating and phasing its work into national programmes and using careful vulnerability targeting.

USAID is set to announce its resilience-oriented funding soon; the UK Department for International Development (DFID) was unable to give global figures; and AGIR Sahel promises a new funding mechanism but has not yet detailed amounts.

The World Bank declined IRIN's requests for an interview.

Building resilience and dealing with the aftermath of crisis will require at least as much money as last year in the Sahel, said Ford. "It is still a crisis year. The poorest. did not suddenly get rich because of a good harvest this year. Extreme poverty is not a trap you get out of in just one year."

But more important than an amount, is the way the money is allocated. Over the long-term, if used well, resilience could be cheaper, as evidenced by DFID's research in Ethiopia and Kenya, which revealed that it would cost 64 percent less to prevent crises than to respond to them. "Reducing the impact of natural disasters saves money, lives and livelihoods, especially for the poor," said DFID spokesperson John Levitt.

aj/cb

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Building resilience

A series of articles exploring what resilience means for vulnerable communities, and its impact on the architecture of aid
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97590/Analysis-The-R-word-Rhetoric-versus-reality-in-the-Sahel</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201204101102070655t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 04 March 2013 (IRIN) - The annual gearing-up of humanitarian programmes to treat the chronic problems of vulnerable Sahelians is a clear sign that development there is not working. As a result, the Sahel is at the centre of the debate on the need to boost vulnerable people&apos;s resilience to shocks.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>African migrants pay high prices to send money home</title><pubDate>Wed, 27 Feb 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2009/200909291220100610t.jpg" />]]>JOHANNESBURG 27 February 2013 (IRIN) - New data from the World Bank has revealed that African migrants pay more to send money home to their families than any other migrant group in the world.</description><body><![CDATA[JOHANNESBURG 27 February 2013 (IRIN) - New data [ http://sendmoneyafrica.worldbank.org/ ] from the World Bank has revealed that African migrants pay more to send money home to their families than any other migrant group in the world. 

While South Asians pay an average of US$6 for every $100 they send home, Africans often pay more than twice that - and in South Africa, which has the highest remittance costs on the continent, nearly 21 percent of money set aside for family members back home is spent on getting it there.

With an estimated 120 million Africans depending on remittances from family members abroad for their survival, health and education, the World Bank argues that high transaction costs are cutting into the impact remittances can have on poverty levels. 

To address this, the Bank is partnering with the African Union Commission and member states to establish the African Institute for Remittances [ http://sendmoneyafrica.worldbank.org/african-institute-remittances-air-project ], which will work towards lowering the transaction costs of remittances to and within Africa. It will also leverage the potential of remittances to influence economic and social development. 

“The World Bank’s approach supports regulatory and policy reforms that promote transparency and market competition and the creation of an enabling environment that promotes innovative payment and remittance products,” said Marco Nicoli, a finance analyst at the Bank who specializes in remittances.

Costly and difficult

Owen Maromo, a 33-year-old farmworker who lives in De Doorns, a grape-growing region in South Africa’s Western Cape Province, told IRIN that his family in Zimbabwe relies on the money he sends home every month. 

“I’ve got a house there and I need to pay rent. I’m also taking care of my youngest brother - since my mum died four years ago - and my wife’s family.

“Almost every Zimbabwean here is budgeting to send money back home,” he added. “If they could, they would send money home on a weekly basis.”

In a 2012 report by the Cape Town-based NGO People Against Suffering Oppression and Poverty (PASSOP), interviews with 350 Zimbabwean migrants revealed some of the reasons sending money home from South Africa is both costly and difficult [ http://www.passop.co.za/news/featured/press-statement ].

A key impediment is the stringent regulatory framework that governs cross-border transfers from South Africa. Exchange control legislation, for example, requires money transfer operators (MTOs) to partner with a bank. According to PASSOP, this has had the effect of stifling competition that would likely reduce transaction costs.  

Legislation intending to counter money laundering and terrorist financing requires that customers provide proof of residence and proof of the source of their funds before they can access financial services. This effectively excludes the many migrants living in informal settlements and those who are paid in cash. 

PASSOP found that even among migrants who do have access to banks and MTOs like Western Union and MoneyGram, many lack the financial literacy to make use of them. 

“Some have just come from rural areas in Zimbabwe, so it takes time for them to know about such things,” said Maromo, adding that lack of documentation was another major obstacle. “If you’re undocumented, you can’t go through the banks.”

Three-quarters of the Zimbabwean migrants interviewed by PASSOP relied instead on “informal” remittance channels, such as giving money or goods to bus drivers, friends or agents to send home. This is often not much cheaper than using banks or MTOs, and it is significantly riskier. Of the respondents who used such methods, 84 percent reported negative experiences, including theft of their money, loss or destruction of their goods and long delays in remittances reaching intended recipients. 

Maromo relayed his own experience sending money home through an agent who charged a 15 percent commission to channel the money through his South African bank account before handing it over to Maromo’s relatives in Zimbabwe. “Some time ago, I nearly lost 2,000 rand ($225) because I deposited it in [the agent’s] account and he was saying he didn’t have it and giving excuses. In the end, we got the money, but it cost us nearly 1,000 rand ($113) in airtime calling Zimbabwe,” he said.

“Some are using bus drivers or those people who are going home, and you have to trust them because you’re desperate, but there can be a lot of problems,” he added. “There are a lot of people whose money just disappears. Almost on a daily basis, you hear those stories.”

Lowering transaction fees

Now, Maromo uses a UK-based online transfer service called Mukuru.com, which is popular with many Zimbabweans living overseas. The proof of residence and source of funds requirements are the same as for traditional MTOs, but the site charges 10 percent on transfers from South Africa to Zimbabwe - less than most banks. 

The South African Reserve Bank and the treasury have committed to bringing the cost of remittances down to 5 percent by relaxing regulations for smaller money transfers, negotiating with regulators in the Southern African Development Community on exchange control regulations, and removing the requirement that MTOs partner with banks.

However, at the time of writing, the Reserve Bank has not yet responded to questions from IRIN about how these changes will be implemented and within what timeframe.

Rob Burrell, director of Mukuru.com, said achieving the 5 percent target would be tough considering the numerous costs that MTOs have to cover, including fees paid to the companies that collect and pay out the money, the cost of supporting transactions through a call centre, and licensing and reporting requirements. “We would need everyone pulling together,” he said.

Burrell noted that less stringent laws governing MTOs in the UK mean more competition but much weaker anti-money laundering controls. To operate in South Africa, Mukuru.com has to comply with the regulation that they partner with a local banking license holder.

“In the UK, it’s easier to obtain your license. There are 4,000 [MTOs operating in the UK] compared to 12 in South Africa, but the downside is that it’s very difficult to police them all,” he told IRIN. “My last audit in the UK was four years ago because they can’t handle the volume of licenses.”

ks/rz

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97557/African-migrants-pay-high-prices-to-send-money-home</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2009/200909291220100610t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">JOHANNESBURG 27 February 2013 (IRIN) - New data from the World Bank has revealed that African migrants pay more to send money home to their families than any other migrant group in the world.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Why the Sahel needs $1.6 billion again this year</title><pubDate>Tue, 19 Feb 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201202150730090624t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 19 February 2013 (IRIN) - The 2013 Sahel Regional Strategy calls for US$1.66 billion to help meet humanitarian needs and build up resilience among vulnerable groups - an identical figure to the 2012 crisis appeal - even though aid agencies estimate the number of Sahelians at risk of going hungry this year has dropped 44 percent to 10.3 million. IRIN spoke to aid agency representatives to find out why the ask has remained constant.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 19 February 2013 (IRIN) - The 2013 Sahel Regional Strategy [ http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/SahelStrategy2013_Dec2012.pdf ] calls for US$1.66 billion to help meet humanitarian needs and build up resilience among vulnerable groups - an identical figure to the 2012 crisis appeal - even though aid agencies estimate the number of Sahelians at risk of going hungry this year has dropped 44 percent to 10.3 million. IRIN spoke to aid agency representatives to find out why the ask has remained constant.

“First of all, last year’s figures represented just seven months of crisis needs, as the appeal was launched in May,” said Allegra Baiocchi, head of the UN’s West Africa Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).

“Secondly, the similar figure is merely a coincidence, and its make-up is very different,” she continued.  

David Gressly, humanitarian coordinator for the Sahel, explained: “In 2012 agencies focused mainly on an emergency food and nutrition response. In 2013 it is much broader - the complex emergency in Mali has been added to the mix, and groups are hoping to kick-start programmes to promote people’s resilience.”

“What we are sure of is that funding should remain high in 2013, which is not a crisis year in the same way as last, but is still a crisis year,” said European Union funding body ECHO’s West Africa head Cyprien Fabre. “The poorest went into debt, reached breaking point, but did not suddenly bounce back because of the good harvest this year. Many are again starting the year with nothing. Extreme poverty is not a trap you get out of in one year.”

This year’s food assistance request has dropped from US$831 million to $644 million, with significant drops across most countries except for Mali - up by 24 percent linked to the ongoing conflict; Mauritania - up 65 percent connected to a critical under-estimation of needs [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97421/Don-t-underestimate-Mauritania-needs-say-aid-agencies ] in 2012; and northern Nigeria, where the ask is 100 percent up as the government is only now starting to face up to the extent of its citizens’ food security and nutrition problems.

Food security needs have dropped significantly in Niger (from $490 million to $354 million) following a relatively good food security and nutrition response there - underpinned by strong government leadership and support.

Malnutrition still high

The number of children with severe acute malnutrition targeted for relief is 1.4 million [ http://www.irinnews.org/report/97093/SAHEL-Malnourished-to-remain-above-one-million-in-2013 ] this year, up one million on last year. This is due to carry-over from last year, and also because while malnutrition is linked to food insecurity its roots are more profound in the Sahel, more significantly linked to poor water, inappropriate infant feeding practices and lack of decent health care for infants and pregnant women.

In northern Nigeria alone, some 260,000 children under age five are estimated to be severely acutely malnourished this year, according to OCHA.

More in-depth and more extensive assessments have also led to the higher figure of 1.4 million which indicates that the real number is no doubt higher. “We’re far closer than we were last year,” said Gressly, “but I wouldn’t exclude the possibility that there are still cases we’re not aware of…

“Last year agencies put a lot of effort into the treatment of severe acute malnutrition,” said Gressly, “but we also need to move forward to prevent it, to stop the Sahel’s high relapse rates.”

For Elise Ford, Sahel advocacy lead at Oxfam, the figures show how far the aid community has come. “It’s a reflection that we’ve come a long way in terms of the quality of our assessments… and we have much more capacity on the ground than we did this time in 2012. We’re able to reach more people.”

Agencies such as the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) are inching towards a more holistic approach, by including a water and sanitation component to nutrition responses, and linking it up with health programming. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and health requirements doubled this year in all countries except Chad. “After all, it sets a bad example when children are treated for malnutrition in health centres which cannot provide clean drinking water or toilets,” notes an aid worker who preferred anonymity.

“It’s not just about malnutrition and food,” said OCHA’s Baiocchi. “These are multi-dimensional problems with multi-dimensional solutions.”

Kick-starting resilience

Of course for “resilience” to have any meaning in the Sahel, activities that promote it need to be funded, and these go beyond the stock-in-trade humanitarian response. They include helping farmers to diversify their crops, increase their seed yield, and use irrigation effectively, said the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). For pastoralists this would include effective destocking, better conservation of fodder and more targeted vaccination programmes, among others.

“This is the start of a long, 10- or 20-year resilience project for the region. It is not a surprise to see that needs are high,” said Ford.

But the 2013 strategy represents only part of the resilience agenda, stressed Gressly. “The bulk of that still needs to come from development funding.”

Agriculture in crisis

Food aid and nutrition were well-funded in the 2012 appeal, but agriculture was not, receiving just 37 percent of the ask.

This year the ask for agriculture is $623 million (down from $831 million), but thus far is 1 percent funded. Time is running out if the April-May planting season is to be met, said FAO.

Because of the low 2012 funding many agro-pastoralists were unable to build up their animal, grain or seed stocks. “You need to invest now. If you have no money by March then the planting season could be lost,” said Baicocchi.

Improving resilience in the agricultural sector in 2013 will involve helping farmers and pastoralists rehabilitate their livelihoods by diversifying their crops, developing a better understanding of how to withstand future shocks, learning how to use more efficient irrigation techniques, and enabling them to produce more productive seeds, among other activities, all of which take time and are costly to implement, said the FAO.  

Last year, half of the seeds and fertilizers needed before June planting did not arrive, said Ford. “We learned from last year what a difference timing makes.”

In a broadly well-met 2012 appeal, alongside agriculture, the needs of Malian displaced people were also poorly met.

Last year the shelter needs of around 200,000 internally displaced Malians were more or less neglected, while it took many months to get aid to refugees up to a reasonable standard. Unconfirmed reports of malnutrition rates soaring to 20 percent in refugee camps in Niger are not a good sign.

Don’t forget Mali

OCHA predicts some 4.3 million Malians need humanitarian assistance, with those in the north among the most vulnerable given the severe disruption of food markets, and out-of-reach food prices [ http://gallery.mailchimp.com/547a787708d32a96a42c77746/files/FundingUpdates_15FEB._2013.pdf ]. Food supply is expected to dwindle further, predicts USAID’s FEWS NET.

For now, many agencies in Mali and beyond, UN agencies, and NGOs that rely on government assistance, are gearing up slowly as they wait for the money to trickle in.

Thus far, 4 percent [ http://gallery.mailchimp.com/547a787708d32a96a42c77746/files/FundingUpdates_15FEB._2013.pdf ] of the 2013 Sahel appeal has been funded.

aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97505/Why-the-Sahel-needs-1-6-billion-again-this-year</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201202150730090624t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 19 February 2013 (IRIN) - The 2013 Sahel Regional Strategy calls for US$1.66 billion to help meet humanitarian needs and build up resilience among vulnerable groups - an identical figure to the 2012 crisis appeal - even though aid agencies estimate the number of Sahelians at risk of going hungry this year has dropped 44 percent to 10.3 million. IRIN spoke to aid agency representatives to find out why the ask has remained constant.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>In Brief: Staples, not export crops, key to tackling Africa’s poverty – report</title><pubDate>Fri, 18 Jan 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201202241255060114t.jpg" />]]>NAIROBI 18 January 2013 (IRIN) - Africa could reduce its poverty levels faster by focusing more on the production of staples rather than export crops, according to a study by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).</description><body><![CDATA[NAIROBI 18 January 2013 (IRIN) - Africa could reduce its poverty levels faster by focusing more on the production of staples rather than export crops, according to a study [ http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ib73.pdf ] by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

Authors of the study, conducted in 10 countries south of the Sahara, noted, “One important finding is that producing more staple crops, such as maize, pulses and roots, and more livestock products tends to reduce poverty further than producing more export crops such as coffee or cut flowers.”

According to the study, while more public resources would be required to generate more agricultural growth, “such public investment in staple sectors is probably cost effective”.

The authors argued that growth in the staple sector was more likely to benefit the poor than growth in the agricultural export sector.

Enoch Mwani, an agricultural economist at the University of Nairobi, concurred. “The agricultural export sector is generally associated with large corporations, but the poor rely predominantly on staples to survive.”

Mwani added that growth in staples had the effect of not only reducing poverty but also ensuring food security.

“[Governments that] invest in staples have the opportunity to increase food availability and, at the same time, create wealth for smallholders,” Mwani told IRIN.

To spur development in sub-Saharan Africa, the study’s policy conclusions call for a focus on accelerating agricultural growth; promoting growth in large agricultural subsectors; supporting growth across several agricultural subsectors; and promoting growth in subsectors with strong linkages to the overall economy and the poor.

ko/rz

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97278/In-Brief-Staples-not-export-crops-key-to-tackling-Africa-s-poverty-report</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201202241255060114t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">NAIROBI 18 January 2013 (IRIN) - Africa could reduce its poverty levels faster by focusing more on the production of staples rather than export crops, according to a study by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Fear, rumour and relief as air strikes continue in Mali</title><pubDate>Wed, 16 Jan 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201301161105500375t.jpg" />]]>BAMAKO/DAKAR 16 January 2013 (IRIN) - Fear and rumour are rife in Mali as French military air strikes against Islamist militants continued for the sixth day in the centre and north of the country.</description><body><![CDATA[BAMAKO/DAKAR 16 January 2013 (IRIN) - Fear and rumour are rife in Mali as French military air strikes against Islamist militants continued for the sixth day in the centre and north of the country.

Information is limited on the number of Malians who have fled the violence, or fear being caught in clashes, but the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) estimates at least 30,000 people have abandoned their homes in recent days.

The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) says according to rough preliminary estimates, 1,230 people have fled to Niger, Burkina Faso and Mauritania, 90 percent of them women.

Refugees arrived in eastern Mauritania from Léré and surrounding villages; in Mangaize camp (north of Ouallam), as well as in Banibangou and Tillabéry towns and the Tillia area in Niger; and in Damba and Mentao camps, as well as the second-largest town, Bobo Dioulasso, in Burkina Faso.

Many people have fled Konna, Amba, Boré and Douentza in Mopti Region, where intense fighting took place on 12-13 January, according to eye-witnesses. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) assessed 445 arrivals in Mopti and Sévaré, most of whom were staying with host families.

“People are continuing to flee for the south for fear of reprisal killings from Islamists who are now assimilated among the local population, and for fear of French attacks,” said a journalist and resident in Sévaré, Mamouou Bocoum. “I understand them, we are in a really difficult situation here.”

According to a partner of UNHCR, local NGO the Commission on Population Movements in Mali, unconfirmed estimates indicate 5,000 people - half of Konna’s population - have fled across the River Niger [ http://reliefweb.int/country/mli ].

Recent movements add to the 400,000 Malians already displaced across the region.

Islamists mixing with civilians

Islamists remain in Konna and Diabaly - both scenes of heavy fighting - many of them embedding themselves within the civilian population, according to French forces and eye-witnesses.

Civilians and humanitarians are deeply concerned that civilians could be mistakenly targeted in the fighting.

More French ground troops are arriving imminently, bringing French forces up to 2,500. French military chiefs have said they will do their utmost to avoid civilian casualties.

Access shrinking

The wide dispersal of Islamist groups into the population has humanitarians worried that the combat zone will continue to widen, and humanitarian access continue to shrink, NGO workers told IRIN.

Mali head of NGO Catholic Relief Services (CRS) Sean Gallagher said staff are very concerned about accessing the displaced in Mopti Region, as the French and Malian military are getting increasingly restrictive.

A number of aid agencies suspended their operations in Mopti Region during and after the fighting in Konna and Douentza, angering some locals. Journalist Mamouou Bocoum told IRIN: “The humanitarian organizations have left town for security reasons - that’s not right. It’s now that we need them here to help the displaced.”

CRS pulled out of Sévaré temporarily but plans to continue working in the region and supporting the displaced with food and possibly cash transfers, once it has finished assessing the situation, Gallagher told IRIN.

ICRC and the Mali Red Cross are currently trying to step up their distributions of food aid, medical care and water to people in the north and in Mopti Region, said spokesperson Germain Mwehu.

“Our major concern is that this intervention is taking place in a [northern] context that has already seen a food security crisis, and very difficult humanitarian conditions,” Mwehu told IRIN.

As of 14 January just US$2 million of the $370 million needed had been raised to cover humanitarian operations in Mali in 2013, according to OCHA.

Northerners flee to bush

French air strikes in Gao and Kidal on 13 January in territory held by Islamist groups since April 2012, targeted rebel training camps, say eye-witnesses.

Hundreds of residents of Kidal Region’s main towns, Kidal and Tessalit, fled into the bush where they have set up small camps.

Doctors of the World (MDM) desk officer Olivier Vandecasteele told IRIN: “Rumour is rife. People [in Kidal Region] are either staying in their homes or fleeing from towns, which puts their access to health care in jeopardy.” MDM, which runs the hospital in Kidal and 20 health clinics across northern Mali, is worried about hundreds of severely malnourished children whose treatment could be interrupted as a result.

MDM has treated 2,050 malnourished children in Kidal and Gao since September 2012 and admitted 400 new infants in Kidal in December alone, said Vandescasteele.

“Populations are exhausting their resilience - it’s been close to a year since their problems started. Families have gone through a major food crisis and a humanitarian crisis, and are now on the move again. This worries us,” Vandescasteele told IRIN. “We should do mobile health teams to reach these people, but we need to do some more security checks before we take the risk.”

Gao residents said Islamist groups fled following the air strikes. Before leaving, they brought 30 or so bodies to the hospital morgue, said Alousseyni Maïga, a teacher in Gao city.

Some residents expressed relief at their departure. Resident Amahani Touré told IRIN: “Thank you God. For two days we’ve worn what we wanted to and felt our liberty again... the religious zealots have been chased out. Let’s hope that they don’t return.”

Telephone lines to Gao have since been cut.

Air strikes have not targeted Timbuktu in the north. NGO Médecins sans Frontières, which works in the hospital there, said they had received patients injured by fighting that was taking place a seven-hour drive away.

More troops on way

In addition to more French troops, the first African troops are to set off within the week from Nigeria to Mali to shore up the French military offensive. Senegal, Niger, Togo, Benin and Burkina Faso have all confirmed they are sending soldiers imminently.

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), France and its fellow UN Security Council members want to speed up the deployment of a UN-mandated, 3,300-strong West African intervention force in Mali.

sd/aj/cb/oa

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97258/Fear-rumour-and-relief-as-air-strikes-continue-in-Mali</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201301161105500375t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">BAMAKO/DAKAR 16 January 2013 (IRIN) - Fear and rumour are rife in Mali as French military air strikes against Islamist militants continued for the sixth day in the centre and north of the country.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Greater efforts needed to avert herder-farmer clashes in Burkina Faso</title><pubDate>Wed, 09 Jan 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201301091022250452t.jpg" />]]>OUAGADOUGOU 09 January 2013 (IRIN) - Recent fighting between herders and farmers in Burkina Faso’s central-eastern Sangou area which left seven people dead is a warning that recurrent violence between the two groups could get out of hand unless urgent action is taken.</description><body><![CDATA[OUAGADOUGOU 09 January 2013 (IRIN) - Recent fighting between herders and farmers in Burkina Faso’s central-eastern Sangou area which left seven people dead is a warning that recurrent violence between the two groups could get out of hand unless urgent action is taken.

“We are used to having frequent clashes between herders and farmers in this part of the country, but they have never been this bad,” said Allahidi Diallo, governor of the Central-East region, one of the country’s most fertile.

On 31 December clashes broke out again between Fulani herdsmen and Bissa farmers after a herder’s cattle grazed on a farm. “A lot of property, including houses, granaries and cattle was destroyed,” said Diallo adding that a temporary curfew was imposed in Sangou village and the surrounding areas. He said fighting had spread to areas as far as 100km away.

“We think that some people are deliberately attacking others because of their ethnicity. We must put an end to these practices where communities are attacked when one of their members has committed an offence. There is no collective responsibility under Burkina Faso law,” Interior Minister Jerome Bougouma told reporters.

He said the violence was mainly due to lack of faith in the judiciary, and the reliance on traditional laws and collective punishment. He pledged that a security forces’ unit would be established in the troubled region.

“There is a lack of confidence in the judiciary and the administration. We will work to rebuild confidence and the rule of law so that people can understand that they need to abide by the state laws and not traditional laws which encourage collective punishment.”

Peace efforts

Deadly clashes between farmers and herders are frequent [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96663/BURKINA-FASO-Preventing-conflict-between-farmers-and-herders ] in Burkina Faso. In 2012, the government held workshops in the country’s 13 regions to seek ways to ease tensions among different communities. According to government statistics, 55 people have been killed in clashes in the past four years and on average there are 600 such conflicts every year.

The peace initiative focused on land regulation, the importance of protecting nomadic paths and seeking ways in which farmers and herders can sustainably use natural resources. In Burkina Faso, livestock are an economic mainstay for many families, with 80 percent of rural families keeping at least one or two animals to fall back on when times are hard.

“During sensitization campaigns, we failed to reach a huge part of the population. How many of those who clashed in the Centre-East region have taken part in our meetings?” asked Hassan Barry, head of Tapital Puulaku, a Fulani cultural organization promoting understanding between pastoralists and farmers. “This is not something that will end immediately.”

Barry urged that local administration officials be trained to increase understanding between farmers and herders and “sensitize them before the beginning of rainy seasons in order to have zero deaths”.

“In December, farmers lost their donkeys after an attack… but later the perpetrators were released by the security forces,” said Halidou Barry, a Fulani herder. “Justice must prevail when there are attacks from either side.”

Displaced

Around 600 people, mainly women and children, have been displaced by the latest fighting, Diallo told IRIN. Some have sought refuge in villages outside Sangou while others crossed the border into neighbouring Ghana. A local resident told IRIN the men were hiding in the bush with their cattle.

“We lost two children, one aged three months and another aged four years… because they were sick and we could not take them to hospital. It is cold, we lack food and water,” said Zaman Diao, one of those who fled after the attack.

Burkina Faso’s Ministry of Social Welfare has sent food and tents to the displaced, but Diallo said more was needed. “The emergency aid sent was done on the basis of first estimates which are now outdated…

“On security, the situation is under control. But there is an emergency. The imperative now is the management of humanitarian issues because there are huge concentrations of displaced persons in certain areas,” Diallo added. “There is no attack and no clashes. Security forces are patrolling.”

bo/ob/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97201/Greater-efforts-needed-to-avert-herder-farmer-clashes-in-Burkina-Faso</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2013/201301091022250452t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">OUAGADOUGOU 09 January 2013 (IRIN) - Recent fighting between herders and farmers in Burkina Faso’s central-eastern Sangou area which left seven people dead is a warning that recurrent violence between the two groups could get out of hand unless urgent action is taken.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>The urban challenge for refugees</title><pubDate>Wed, 09 Jan 2013 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201206040849580451t.jpg" />]]>NOUAKCHOTT/DAKAR 09 January 2013 (IRIN) - Sequestering refugees in rural camps is no longer the norm: The most recent estimates indicate that almost half of refugees flock to urban areas and just one third to rural camps, according to the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR). But while agencies are adjusting their approaches, they are still struggling to match their response with their policies. </description><body><![CDATA[NOUAKCHOTT/DAKAR 09 January 2013 (IRIN) - Sequestering refugees in rural camps is no longer the norm: The most recent estimates indicate that almost half of refugees flock to urban areas and just one third to rural camps, according to the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR). But while agencies are adjusting their approaches, they are still struggling to match their response with their policies.

UNHCR has come a long way since 1997 when its refugee response approach implied that responding to refugees in towns and cities was to be avoided. In 2009 it committed to a policy [ http://www.unhcr.org/4ab356ab6.pdf ] that recognized the right of displaced people to move freely, stressing that its mandate to protect refugees is not affected by their location.

There are upsides to urban support. Refugees are more likely to find work (when permitted to do so by the local authorities) and become self-sufficient in urban settings, say agencies. Because of this, though start-up costs may be higher, these should diminish over the long term. It also makes more sense for a lot of refugees who were in any case displaced from urban settings, said Jeff Crisp, head of policy development and evaluation at UNHCR.

Kellie Leeson, urban refugee strategy focal point at the International Rescue Committee (IRC), told IRIN: “Typically refugees who come to urban centres do so to find jobs - that motivation and ambition should be applauded and should spark the question: how can we take advantage of that to help them survive on their own?”

Dominique Hyde, head of the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) in Jordan, said Syrian refugees benefited from being in urban settings: “It’s a positive. If you look at lessons learned from Iraqis in Jordan. Living conditions are more normal, you’re not in a camp setting, your movements are not restricted. Although it is more difficult to access them, they are aware through informal networks of how to access services. Urban settings are better settings for refugees.”

“If you have a camp setting, it’s easier to count people, to provide a school, to provide a health centre. But for refugees, being in their own apartment, and being able to take their own decisions with cash assistance is preferred,” she said.

Kenya

In Kenya, many of the 45,000-100,000 refugees in the capital Nairobi fled Kakuma and Dadaab camps because of insecurity and lack of employment opportunities.

Experience shows in long-term situations camp conditions progressively decline as donor interest wanes. “Even in a competitive environment like Nairobi, you can eke out a living somehow,” said Crisp.

But in December 2012 the Kenyan government ordered Nairobi-based refugees to return to Kakuma and Dadaab, following a spate of attacks in Kenya’s northeastern Somali region and in the capital, Nairobi.

IRC has found that when it comes to creating opportunities for refugees in urban settings, programmes work best when they target both host populations and refugees. This was clearly the case in Nairobi where they teamed up with NIKE which runs a micro-franchise programme to train women aged 17-19 to set up small businesses.

“We’re trying to build networks so that it isn’t about isolated groups but refugees can engage with the host communities,” said Leeson.

“Obviously refugees will have specific protection issues but in general what they want is employment, health and education - that’s what everyone wants, right?”

The difficulty is where to draw the line between responding to refugee needs and solving the problems of the urban poor, says UNHCR’s Crisp. Refugees tend to settle among other poor and vulnerable communities, including migrants, irregular migrants and rejected asylum seekers, each of which has critical needs.

Tensions are also easily raised if aid is directed at just one group.

Studies of Nairobi-based refugees have shown urban refugees often pay higher rents than Kenyans, and are charged more for public health services and education fees, according to the Overseas Development Institute’s Humanitarian Policy Group.

Inclusive programmes

In San Diego and New York City in the USA, IRC works with local authorities to access land for ex-refugees from Burkina Faso, Myanmar, Cameroon and all over, who have resettled, to grow urban gardens. So as not to aggravate tensions, and to promote inclusion, the programme invites locals to get involved too.

Responding in urban settings involves having to work with new partners, such as the municipal authorities, so that refugees are integrated into existing education and health systems, rather than creating parallel ones. “These [urban authorities] are new partners and we are in the early stages of engaging with them… it involves a big shift,” said Crisp.

Local authorities are not always open to addressing refugee needs, and may prioritize rural camps over urban-based aid, according to UNHCR.

Mauritania

In Mauritania, both the local authorities and UNHCR have pushed refugees to stay in Mbéra camp in the east, if they want to receive aid, refugee groups in the capital, Nouakchott, told IRIN.

Refugees elsewhere - including for instance, Syrian refugees in Turkey - face a similar situation [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97125/TURKEY-Syrian-refugees-choosing-to-work-risk-exploitation ].

In Mauritania some 57,000 refugees are registered at Mbéra, while refugee group the Association of Refugees and Victims of Azawad and the Urban Community of Nouakchott (CUN), which represents the nine municipal authorities of Nouakchott, estimate a further 15,000 Malians fled to the capital, but no urban registration process took place, so the number is not known.

UNHCR has no immediate plans to address Nouakchott-based refugee needs. “The authorities have been very clear - that humanitarian aid is for those who are in the camp. Our strategy here is not for urban refugees in the capital,” said Elise Villechalane, reports officer for UNHCR in Nouakchott at the end of 2012.

“Our priority is to save lives immediately. It may evolve over time, but that is the current priority.”

Malians in Nouakchott come from both the Islamist-held north and from Kati and Bamako in the south following the March 2012 military coup. Many of the refugees are ex-government officials or other individuals with some means and thus may not be eligible in any case, for vulnerability-led aid, noted refugee groups.

Refugees who reach capital cities often create a “self-selection process” as they tend to be more educated and have more means to get to the capital in the first place.

However, agencies have moved away from making the assumption that only “young able-bodied men reach capital cities”, said Crisp. “We know they are a diverse group made up of women, children, men, people with disabilities, and other vulnerabilities.”

Many Malians arrived in Nouakchott with nothing, having used their resources to get there, said Zakiatou Oualette Alatine, an ex-Malian minister in Kati, and now spokesperson for the Association of Refugees and Victims of Azawad. “Many of us arrived empty-handed. Some of the young have found jobs but many of them are exploited as they don’t have refugee status. Most rely on extended family. A minority begs for money,” Kati told IRIN.

Both she and Safia Mint Moulay, representative of Karama, an association that represents Malian refugees in Nouakchott, said what urban refugees need most is identification papers [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97187/MAURITANIA-Ex-refugees-want-land-ID-cards ]. Without refugee cards they are unable to get a job or attend school, said Moulay. “These people have real needs… Getting their papers - that is the key to everything. If they have papers then they have a right to receive food aid, blankets, shelter and protection,” she said.

These refugees do not want to go to Mbéra as they will not be able to work at all, said Alatine. Refugees have criticized life in the camps and the lack of schools.

CUN, alongside the international association of francophone mayors, gave 60,000 euros (US$78,500) for food for urban refugees, said Mohamed Fouad Berrad, CUN’s presidential adviser, but resources would need to come from elsewhere in future.

Shift in mind-set required

Getting urban refugee responses right requires a shift in mind-set, says IRC’s Leeson. “We can’t say let’s just do what we did before and translate it to an urban setting. We need to be more thoughtful about what we are doing.”

Too often refugees flee insecurity in camps only to face new forms of insecurity in cities, say refugee agencies. Urban refugees are often highly mobile and invisible, making them hard to protect. A study of Nairobi-based refugees by the Humanitarian Policy Group, IRC and the Refugee Consortium of Kenya, noted urban refugees were too fearful of deportation to make themselves visible and demand their rights [ http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5858.pdf ]. Host states must be pressured into recognizing refugee rights to protection and giving them a clearer legal status, the report recommends.

Refugee associations in Nouakchott have been campaigning with the government, but little has shifted, they said.

UNHCR is still learning but the organization has put more time and resources into turning its urban refugee policy into practice than almost any other strategy, said Crisp.

“We are still in a transitional phrase. It isn’t quite prominent yet for everyone. But we need to get everyone orientated to the urban context,” he said.

The agency is collating best practice from urban responses globally, including in Malaysia, Ethiopia, Uganda, Ecuador, India, Tajikistan and Bulgaria, which will be available on a database this year.

To turn such best practice into a systematic reality will inevitably require more resources, Crisp noted. UNHCR launched record-level appeals amounting to US$3.6 billion in 2012, due to several high-profile refugee crises, and the funding is not in place to allocate or train staff dedicated specifically to addressing the challenges of urban response.

aj/eo/mk/cb

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aid in an urbanizing world

A series of articles on challenges and changes humanitarian workers are confronting in urban emergencies
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97203/The-urban-challenge-for-refugees</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201206040849580451t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">NOUAKCHOTT/DAKAR 09 January 2013 (IRIN) - Sequestering refugees in rural camps is no longer the norm: The most recent estimates indicate that almost half of refugees flock to urban areas and just one third to rural camps, according to the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR). But while agencies are adjusting their approaches, they are still struggling to match their response with their policies. </td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>SAHEL: Malnourished to remain above one million in 2013</title><pubDate>Thu, 20 Dec 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201204030907580372t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 20 December 2012 (IRIN) - Despite good rains across much of the Sahel this year, 1.4 million children are expected to be malnourished - up from one million in 2012, according to the 2013 Sahel regional strategy.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 20 December 2012 (IRIN) - Despite good rains across much of the Sahel this year, 1.4 million children are expected to be malnourished - up from one million in 2012, according to the 2013 Sahel regional strategy.

The strategy, which calls on donors to provide US$1.6 billion of aid for 2013, says fewer people are expected to go hungry in 2013 - 10.3 million instead of 18.7 million in 2012.

Harvests across much of the Sahel were fairly good this year following more steady rains, but vulnerability remain as the 2012 crisis, on the back of crises in 2005 and 2010 [ http://www.irinnews.org/In-Depth/89910/81/Food-and-nutrition-crisis-in-Niger-and-the-Western-Sahel ], left many families heavily indebted, with severely depleted assets, and with no seeds to plant.

The number of malnourished children being targeted is rising partly because absorbing the 2012 shock takes time and food prices remain high; and because the illness is linked to health care services, caring practices and access to clean water, not just food security.

Another major reason why estimates have risen is because governments and agencies are widening the scope of nutrition surveys to include as yet un-assessed areas. This includes a larger proportion of northern Nigeria; and more thorough analysis in Senegal, Burkina Faso and Mauritania, which could each expect higher figures, said Manuel Fontaine, acting West Africa director of UNICEF.

“It is not that the problem is necessarily getting worse, but the extent to which we are able to see it is getting better, as we develop our capacity to do surveys,” Fontaine told IRIN.

While 20,000 children in Senegal were estimated to be severely malnourished in 2012, this number is expected to double in 2013.

“It is not often understood that even with good rains, severe problems will remain for the Sahel,” said David Gressly, humanitarian coordinator for the Sahel.

Production of rice, sorghum, corn and millet in 2012 was on average 18 percent higher than the five-year average in the Sahel, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Food Programme.

Food insecurity is at the root of just one third of malnutrition cases, says the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), with other drivers including poor health services, lack of clean water and poor infant caring practices.

In a good year in the Sahel some 230,000 children will die, either directly or indirectly, from malnutrition.

Since September 2012 SMART nutrition surveys have taken place, or are currently under way, in almost all the affected countries.

Malnutrition rates in northern Mali - already at record-highs - are expected to remain so or rise further.

Meanwhile, population growth across the Sahel means that the number of malnourished children will inevitably rise. “The population in Niger doubles every 25 years - so of course malnutrition will also increase,” said Fontaine.

However, numbers may drop in some areas, including parts of Niger, where the government has improved its ability to deal with malnutrition.

2012 crisis not over

For Cyprien Fabre, head of the European Union aid body ECHO in West Africa, the 2012 crisis is not over. “The needs now are not covered. Health is under-covered, IDPs’ [internally displaced persons’] needs in Mali are not covered. There are thousands of IDPs in Mopti and Bamako who have received nothing to date.”

Host populations in Mali have also, for the most part, received very little, he said.

Some 70 percent of the US$1.6 billion appeal was met, with food security and nutrition coverage relatively good; but health was just 27 percent covered; education 16 percent; and water and sanitation just 50 percent, according to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) [ http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Funding%20Status%2014DEC.2012.pdf ].

UNICEF estimates that by the end of 2012 it and its many NGO partners will have reached 850,000 children, making the Sahel response its biggest nutrition programme ever. “The good thing is this means the foundations are there to continue to do this next year,” said Fontaine. “The people, the data-gathering is in place, but the funding still needs to come in to purchase the RUTF [ready-to-use therapeutic food].”

But humanitarians worry of donor fatigue and many are concerned possible military intervention [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97076/Mali-Humanitarian-impact-of-armed-intervention ] in Mali will distract donors from the chronic food insecurity and malnutrition crises in the region. “Sustaining funding for the broader Sahel crisis will be a challenge regardless of what happens next year,” said Gressly.

Alain Cordeil, head of the World Food Programme (WFP) in Mauritania, voiced his fears. “If we only have political interest from donors for refugees, we will not solve the problems for this region… Without resources [in Mauritania] we cannot pre-position food… This could be very chaotic,” he told IRIN.

With all humanitarian actors focused on resilience, humanitarians and donors must look beyond quick fix solutions, stressed Fontaine. “It is also up to us to make sure our interventions don’t just feed today and not build for tomorrow.”

aj/cb

-------------------------------------------------------  
Niger malnutrition figures

Acute malnutrition has been above 10 percent in Niger every year since 2006. It ranged from 10.3 percent in 2006 to a high of 16.7 percent in 2010 and was 14.8 percent in 2012, according to SMART surveys.

Over the same period, chronic malnutrition ranged from a high of 50 percent in October 2006 to a low of 42 percent in November 2012.

-------------------------------------------------------
Stress context

Factors leading to stress are high food prices across the region; the situation in Mali, which has led some 200,000 Malians to be internally displaced and 200,000 to become refugees; and flooding that ruined thousands of hectares of crops in Chad, Niger, Nigeria and Benin.

While prices of staple grains have stabilized post-harvest, they have done so at high levels compared to 2009. The price of millet is 82 percent higher than the five-year average in Burkina Faso capital Ouagadougou, and 67-76 percent higher in northern Mali, according to WFP and the Food and Agriculture Organization [ http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/sahel/docs/Note_conjointe_Novembre_2012_FR.pdf ].

Pasture coverage across much of the region remained weak, with severe implications for agro-pastoralists, a group whose needs are often overlooked by donors in crisis response.

The biggest needs are for Chad, followed by Mali, then Niger and Mauritania. Others include Burkina Faso, Senegal, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gambia.

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97093/SAHEL-Malnourished-to-remain-above-one-million-in-2013</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201204030907580372t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 20 December 2012 (IRIN) - Despite good rains across much of the Sahel this year, 1.4 million children are expected to be malnourished - up from one million in 2012, according to the 2013 Sahel regional strategy.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>MALI: Humanitarian impact of armed intervention</title><pubDate>Tue, 18 Dec 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210030958230318t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 18 December 2012 (IRIN) - Over 700,000 people could be displaced if military intervention goes ahead next year in northern Mali, according to preliminary estimates by humanitarian agencies, who stress that the numbers are just approximations.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 18 December 2012 (IRIN) - Over 700,000 people could be displaced if military intervention goes ahead next year in northern Mali, according to preliminary estimates by humanitarian agencies, who stress that the numbers are just approximations.

This includes some 300,000 internally displaced Malians (a significant increase on the current 198,550) and 407,000 refugees (currently 156,819), most of them headed to Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Niger, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Senegal and Algeria.

Over recent months humanitarian actors have been using risk and threat models to develop likely disaster scenarios, with a view to mapping out what their response might look like - an exercise fraught with difficulty given the uncertainties involved.

“It is almost impossible to predict what is going to happen where and when - everything is very broad,” said Philippe Conraud, West Africa emergency coordinator with Oxfam, which is working in Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Burkina Faso.

Humanitarian country teams - made up of UN agencies and partners including some NGOs and the International Organization of Migration - have set out in a planning document four potential scenarios, ranging from a progressive deterioration of the situation in northern and southern Mali but with no military intervention; to Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)-backed military intervention, which is estimated as of now to be the most likely scenario.

ECOWAS has been urging the UN Security Council to authorize a military intervention to retake northern Mali from the Islamist Ansar Dine militia, which controls swathes of territory alongside the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO) and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQMI).

The regional body has also opened talks with the some of the forces in the north. On 4 December, ECOWAS mediator and Burkina Faso President Blaise Compaoré led talks in Ouagadougou between Mali government representatives and those of Ansar Dine and the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA), a separatist Tuareg movement that initially captured key towns in northern Mali before being uprooted by Islamist forces.

In addition to mass displacement, potential humanitarian implications of military intervention could include inter-communal and/or inter-ethnic violence the possible reactivation of dormant terrorist cells in southern Mali and in the region; as well as deaths and injuries.

Inter-communal violence is not new to northern Mali, with Tuareg groups deeply factionalized through a succession of attempted rebellions. Currently militia groups are proliferating in the north and are expected to involve themselves in conflict. Earlier this year three prominent militias united to form the Northern Mali Liberation Front.

Destruction of infrastructure and restrictions in basic services in both the south and the north could take place; market prices are likely to be volatile; food insecurity and malnutrition rates could rise. Malnutrition rates [ http://www.irinnews.org/report/96069/MALI-Malnutrition-Worrying-in-north-rising-in-south ] in parts of northern Mali have doubled in one year, to reach 13.5 percent, according to NGO Doctors of the World.

Other potential outcomes include a restriction in humanitarian access; anti-ECOWAS protests; terrorist attacks in ECOWAS troop-contributing countries; mounting hostility towards UN agencies - depending on the role of the UN in military intervention; a proliferation of militia and south-defence groups; and the near-cessation of development activities.

A potential rise in human rights violations could also occur; while children are particularly at risk of recruitment and separation from their families among other violations.

Time to plan?

Advance knowledge that a military intervention is very likely means “we have time - lots of time to plan, so we can set up to at least reduce to a minimum the last-minute scramble that is involved in a reactive response,” said Allegra Baiocchi, head of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in West Africa (ROWCA).

By planning ahead, agencies can at least make donors aware of the potential need for a large-scale response in the Sahel again this year, and the crisis in Mali could continue to focus donor attention on the region, which is cyclically hit with food insecurity and malnutrition crises.

Some 18 million Sahelians were food insecure in 2012 and vulnerability for millions will carry through to 2013, say aid experts.

An appeal for US$1.6 billion to cover humanitarian needs in the Sahel in 2013 was released today.

Donors favour certainty

Now that scenarios have been discussed, agencies are developing potential operational responses, which need to be aligned with regional and government plans.

But planning a response based on a potential scenario is difficult as donors will usually decline to fund it.

European Union aid body ECHO, one of the principal responders to malnutrition in the Sahel this year, will not allocate money specifically to prepare for military intervention in Mali, said its West Africa head Cyprien Fabre. “We don’t have a specific allocation to prepare for military intervention…. What we are trying to do is to enhance the capacity to respond to unmet needs now,” said Fabre. ECHO recently directed an additional US$26 million to the Sahel.

Some NGOs have private funding, while the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Food Programme in Mali have some funds to pre-position stocks for next year, “but it’s hard for everyone to have the flexibility to do this,” said Baiocchi.

“It is very difficult to prepare,” said Germain Mwehu, International Committee of the Red Cross response coordinator in Mali and Niger, “but we are used to always adapting to evolving situations… We are ready if there is an intervention, to the degree that we can be.”

Humanitarian principles

Another concern is which actors are planning to respond to humanitarian consequences. ECOWAS Commissioner for Human Development and Gender Issues Adrienne Yande Diop told IRIN: “We have a mandate to treat those affected with some sort of aid… humanitarian priorities will be food, nutrition, water, health and shelter… We want to be effective and to reach people in need.”

But this has alarmed many humanitarian actors who believe humanitarian and military intervention must be kept separate so as to not to muddy the humanitarian principles of neutrality and impartiality and put humanitarian staff - and populations in need - in danger.

“The ability of humanitarian actors, particularly NGOs, to stay and deliver, is predicated on their acceptance by communities and local authorities. Making sure they are viewed as being separate and independent to military intervention is essential,” said Baiocchi. “As we have seen in other contexts, how we relate to an internationally-supported military intervention can pose serious dilemmas to humanitarians.”

Political interventions usually range from peacekeeping to peace enforcement, to outright combat - the latter poses the most danger to humanitarian principles in the case of integrated missions [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/94647/AID-POLICY-UN-Integration-under-the-spotlight ].

Most agree more dialogue is needed. “If ECOWAS plans humanitarian actions, that is its right to do so, but it is the modality on the ground that is at stake and where separation is needed,” said Fabre.

For regional humanitarian coordinator for the Sahel David Gressly, this is a chance “to test our systems”. He told IRIN: “There are a lot of countries involved with this planning - getting a common sense of operating assumptions is challenging, though having clarity across the board on what we may have to face in 2013 is an opportunity.”

aj/cb/am

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97076/MALI-Humanitarian-impact-of-armed-intervention</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210030958230318t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 18 December 2012 (IRIN) - Over 700,000 people could be displaced if military intervention goes ahead next year in northern Mali, according to preliminary estimates by humanitarian agencies, who stress that the numbers are just approximations.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>IDPs: African IDP Convention comes into force</title><pubDate>Thu, 06 Dec 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2008/200807227t.jpg" />]]>NAIROBI 06 December 2012 (IRIN) - The African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) 2009, also known as the Kampala Convention, came into force on 6 December; it is the world’s first legally binding instrument to cater specifically to people displaced within their own countries.</description><body><![CDATA[NAIROBI 06 December 2012 (IRIN) - The African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) 2009, also known as the Kampala Convention, came into force on 6 December; it is the world’s first legally binding instrument to cater specifically to people displaced within their own countries.

Adopted at an AU summit in the Ugandan capital, Kampala, the Convention [ http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/2009/october/pa/summit/doc/Convention%20on%20IDPs%20(Eng)%20-%20Final.doc ] required ratification by 15 member countries before it could enter into force; Swaziland became the 15th country to do so on 12 November, joining Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Lesotho, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo, Uganda and Zambia. At least 37 AU members have also signed [ http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpInfoFiles)/979113CFF0292E97C1257ACB006315D4/$file/map-au-signed-ratified-countries-with-numbers.pdf ] the Convention but have yet to ratify it.

Among other things, the Convention aims to "establish a legal framework for preventing internal displacement, and protecting and assisting internally displaced persons in Africa".

UN High Commissioner for Refugees Antonio Guterres hailed the development as "historic" and said in a statement that the Convention "puts Africa in a leading position when it comes to having a legal framework for protecting and helping the internally displaced".

Stephen Oola, a transitional justice and governance analyst at Uganda's Makerere University Refugee Law Project, noted that the most important parts of the Convention were the clauses relating to the prevention of internal displacement. "The principle requiring the prevention of IDPs is absolutely necessary and should be the guiding principle for all state and non-state actors implementing the Convention," he said.

Just the beginning

Oola also stressed the need for the letter of the law to be translated into practice.

"In Uganda, we have had an IDP policy since 2004, but in many cases we find that the government still seems ill-prepared to deal with displacement," he said. "The existence of a law is rarely the conclusion of a policy... It will be important for this continental commitment to be matched by action on the ground for people who, for one reason or another, find themselves displaced," he said.

Africa has 9.7 million IDPs, according to the UN Refugee Agency, UNHCR. The Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia and Sudan collectively have more than five million IDPs.

Noting that the situation of IDPs can affect the stability of states, UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Internally Displaced Persons Chakola Beyani said the Convention could "contribute to stabilizing displaced populations through the specific obligations it sets out to states and other actors, such as obligations relating to humanitarian assistance, compensation and assistance in finding lasting solutions to displacement as well as accessing the full range of their human rights".

"The unique 'added value' of this Convention stems from how comprehensive it is and the manner in which it addresses many of the key challenges of our times and, indeed, of Africa," he said in a statement. "If implemented well, it can help states and the African Union address both current and potential future internal displacement related not only to conflict, but also natural disasters and other effects of climate change, development, and even megatrends such as population growth and rapid urbanization."

The International Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) [ http://www.internal-displacement.org/kampala-convention ] noted that, while the Convention signalled an important step in addressing the plight of IDPs, many countries were not legally bound by it.

"The countries which have not yet adopted the Convention must do so, as a legal framework is the very basis of ensuring the rights and well-being of people forced to flee inside their home country," Sebastian Albuja, head of IDMC's Africa department, said in a statement.

According to Nuur Sheekh, board member of the Kenya-based Internal Displacement Policy and Advocacy Centre [ http://www.idpacafrica.org/ ], some states expressed reservations about signing the Convention because "the issue of displacement is highly politicized, and some states saw it as a criticism of their human rights and governance records". He noted, however, that the Convention would have an influence, even on those countries that have not signed or ratified it.

"The AU will now also be able to use the Convention for advocacy, to encourage member states - even those who have not ratified it - to implement its principles... Kenya, for instance has not signed it but has developed an IDP policy that borrows heavily from the Kampala Convention," he told IRIN. "States now need to domesticate the Convention and develop IDP policies that reach from the central government to all lower levels of government so that the Convention can work in practice."

kr/rz

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96984/IDPs-African-IDP-Convention-comes-into-force</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2008/200807227t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">NAIROBI 06 December 2012 (IRIN) - The African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) 2009, also known as the Kampala Convention, came into force on 6 December; it is the world’s first legally binding instrument to cater specifically to people displaced within their own countries.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>HEALTH: Breaking out of the cold chain</title><pubDate>Tue, 20 Nov 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2009/200904201848030218t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 20 November 2012 (IRIN) - Health workers currently immunizing thousands of children and young adults against Meningitis A in Benin are currently doing so without having to spend days preparing ice packs and sourcing generators and fridges to load on trucks because the vaccine has now won approval for being kept at up to 40 degrees Celsius for as long as four days.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 20 November 2012 (IRIN) - Health workers currently immunizing thousands of children and young adults against Meningitis A in Benin are currently doing so without having to spend days preparing ice packs and sourcing generators and fridges to load on trucks because the vaccine has now won approval for being kept at up to 40 degrees Celsius for as long as four days.

Before, like almost all vaccines, the Meningitis A vaccine (marketed in Africa as MenAfricVac) was only licensed for use if kept at temperatures of 2-8 degrees Celsius.

The breakthrough follows years of rigorous testing of the effect of heat on the vaccine by the regulator Drugs Controller General of India, Health Canada [ http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/index-eng.php ], and the World Health Organization (WHO) Vaccines pre-qualification programme [ http://apps.who.int/prequal/ ].

As a result, very remote populations will access the vaccine more easily, the logistics of vaccine campaigns will be simpler, and vaccine campaign costs will drop both for partners and for national governments, said Michel Zaffran, coordinator of WHO’s Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) [ http://www.who.int/immunization_delivery/en/ ], and Marie-Pierre Preziosi, director of the meningitis Vaccine Project, a partnership between international NGO PATH [ http://www.path.org/ ] and WHO.

Costs will not drop significantly immediately, but will diminish as more vaccines are relicensed, says WHO. Cost implication studies are under way in northern Benin and Chad. 

While cold chain limitations do not tend to limit coverage, they do overburden health workers, says WHO. 

Even industrialized country vaccine campaigns have trouble sticking to the cold chain, and each year thousands of vaccines are thrown away due to cold chain failure, even if the vaccine might still have been unaffected, according to WHO. 

“This is a breakthrough,” said Zaffran. “It is the first vaccination ever to be licensed for use in a developing country with the flexibility to take us out of the rigid temperature structure. It is a great simplification of logistics. And it opens the door for other manufacturers to follow suit.”

Why so long?

But the vaccine is nothing new - merely the license has changed following analysis of years of data on the vaccine’s stability - that is, how well it can withstand temperature rises and other conditions.

“The potential for some vaccines to remain safely outside the cold chain for short periods of time has been widely known for over 20 years,” said Zaffran in a recent communiqué. “But this is the first time a vaccine intended for use in Africa has been tested and submitted to regulatory review and approved for this type of use.”

It took decades to get here because agencies got stuck in a mindset, said Zaffran. The EPI was set up in the 1970s to immunize as many children against diseases as quickly as possible, and put in place simple rigid rules to avoid risk: one of which was to keep vaccines cold. “It was quite difficult to move away from this mentality,” said Zaffran.

Regulators and manufacturers are “very conservative in order to protect the population,” said Preziosi. “It took a while for all the documentation to be gathered to convince them to go ahead.” 

Strict controls remain: “This is not a “green light to do anything with a vaccine - it still needs to be kept… at no more than 40 degrees, for any more than four days," stressed Zaffran.

Hepatitis B next?

“The momentum is there. I am quite confident that within the next year or two, we’ll have one or two more re-licensed in this way,” he said.

Analysis on the heat stability of Hepatitis B and HPV [ http://www.cdc.gov/hpv/whatishpv.html ] (human papillomavirus) vaccines is under way; next on the list are yellow fever, rotavirus and pneumococcal disease. 

Even the oral polio vaccine - one of the most heat-sensitive vaccines - was shown to be stable when the cold chain broke down in a part of Chad, according to a recent study though WHO was emphatic that rather than licensing the vaccine it will gradually be phased out as progress towards eradication inches along. 

Meningitis progress

The MenAfricVac, which costs just under 50 US cents per dose, was designed for use in the 26 countries that span the African meningitis belt, from Senegal to Ethiopia. 

Some 100 million people aged 1-29 across 10 countries have been vaccinated thus far; a further 16 countries are planned between now and 2016. 

Early results have been very positive: Burkina Faso [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/92985/WEST-AFRICA-Meningitis-cases-dramatically-down ] has had the lowest level of epidemic meningitis in 15 years, and the campaign is achieving “herd immunity” - that is, those either too old or too young to have received the vaccine have also been shown to be clear of the bacteria. 

Meningitis A could be eliminated in the meningitis belt if the mass campaign continues, says Preziosi, and if governments then incorporate it in their routine immunization programmes. 

But more funding beyond the US$160 million from the GAVI Alliance [ http://www.gavialliance.org/ ], and contributions from national governments, will be needed to complete the campaign, she warns. 

aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96827/HEALTH-Breaking-out-of-the-cold-chain</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2009/200904201848030218t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 20 November 2012 (IRIN) - Health workers currently immunizing thousands of children and young adults against Meningitis A in Benin are currently doing so without having to spend days preparing ice packs and sourcing generators and fridges to load on trucks because the vaccine has now won approval for being kept at up to 40 degrees Celsius for as long as four days.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>BURKINA FASO-NIGER: Aid agencies tighten security</title><pubDate>Tue, 06 Nov 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201208141030390906t.jpg" />]]>OUAGADOUGOU/DAKAR 06 November 2012 (IRIN) - Aid agencies have stepped up security measures in Burkina Faso and Niger as the threat of kidnappings by Islamist groups mounts.</description><body><![CDATA[OUAGADOUGOU/DAKAR 06 November 2012 (IRIN) - Aid agencies have stepped up security measures in Burkina Faso and Niger as the threat of kidnappings by Islamist groups mounts.

Security specialists fear Islamist groups currently in control of northern Mali will increasingly abduct foreign nationals to raise money to prepare for conflict, given the likelihood of an Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) military intervention predicted to take place early next year. Some say hostages could also be used as human shields.

As a result, UN agencies are using armed escorts for travel into rural areas of Niger and much of Burkina Faso, international staff have been withdrawn from many areas, and NGOs travel to at-risk zones only in convoy. 

Five Nigerien aid workers were freed on 4 November, while a sixth aid worker - a Chadian national - died after having been shot by hostage-takers in southeastern Niger on 14 October. The freed hostages said they were mistakenly kidnapped by the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO) which had been “looking for a white person”.

Western workers are the principal target, though regional African staff may also be pursued once ECOWAS member states firmly commit to contributing troops or support to the military intervention mission, say security specialists in Niger and Burkina Faso.

Areas deemed most at-risk include northern Burkina Faso near the Mali border - where most of the 35,000 Malian refugees are currently sheltering - and rural areas outside major towns throughout Niger.  

Simmering popular discontent over the lack of development in Burkina Faso, high youth unemployment and the regime's failure to raise living standards also provides fertile ground for Islamist groups to boost their influence, say analysts [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95060/Analysis-Burkina-Faso-s-uneasy-peace ].

Burkina Faso president Blaise Compaoré is playing a prominent mediation role in the Mali crisis while also supporting the call for international intervention; while Niger has been at the forefront of states neighbouring Mali to call for military intervention in the north. 

Porous borders mean “there is a lot of movement of Islamist groups” across Burkina Faso and Niger, including suspected Boko Haram [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95874/Analysis-Carrot-or-stick-Nigerians-divided-over-Boko-Haram ] members in southern Niger on the border with Nigeria, according to Germain Mwehu, spokesperson for the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Niger and Mali.  

While urging vigilance, the security threat should not be exaggerated, said one aid worker. “We tend to scare ourselves.” Thus far the situation in northern Mali has had just an “indirect” impact on security in Niger and Burkina Faso, according to security specialists, including head of the UN Department for Safety and Security (UNDSS) in Niger, Jean-Gabrielle Baba. But this could change as military intervention approaches.

Nationalization and armed escorts

Following the mid-October abduction, all non-essential expatriate staff in Niger were shifted to urban hubs such as Zinder, Maradi and Niamey; while national and regional staff continue to run operations. International staff have been similarly restricted in northern Burkina Faso. 

But aid agencies’ policy to “Africanize” positions in at-risk areas should perhaps be reconsidered with the aim of using nationals-only, said a security specialist with an international NGO who asked to remain unnamed, given the possibility that ECOWAS nationals could be targeted. 

“It would not be good to be Ivoirian or Senegalese or Burkinabe in Niger close to areas with northern Mali at the moment,” he commented.

In Burkina Faso, UN staff are using armed escorts for travel beyond Djibo (in Soum) and Dori (in Seno) in the Sahel region, and in Niger for most travel outside of major towns, according to Franck Kwonu, spokesperson with the UN Office of the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) in Niger.

While UN agencies are using armed escorts, most NGOs choose not to, fearing it militarizes aid. One aid worker, who preferred anonymity, told IRIN: “In places like northern Mali, working with armed escorts would prevent us working on other things… If we don’t stand on our core values [of impartiality and neutrality], then we’re lying, and that is the message we bring.”

The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) is reportedly setting up a secure zone for UN agencies, protected by gendarmes or military, in Douri, in the Sahel region of Burkina Faso. It also plans to relocate refugee camps such as Ferrerio which are under 50km from the Mali border, in line with international standards [ http://protection.unsudanig.org/data/general/NRC%20-%20Camp%20Management%20Toolkit.pdf ].

Some 1,500 refugees already left Ferrerio of their own accord to shelter in Goutebo camp further inland, as they felt it to be more secure, according to NGO Terre Des Hommes (TDH), which helps set up schools in refugee camps. 

Programmes affected

While security restrictions have not significantly slowed down operations in Niger, said OCHA’s Kwonu, aid agency staff say there has been an impact, at least in Burkina Faso.

Travel reductions mean Oxfam staff can spend less time consulting with refugees, said humanitarian manager Sosthene Konaté. Arianna Brindelli, programme officer with TDH says the organization has scaled back its education operations in camps. 

Transferring full responsibility for running programmes to national staff, takes time and can slow down operations aid workers told IRIN.

A 2011 OCHA report To Stay and Deliver outlined some of the creative ways aid agencies were finding to continue programming in highly insecure environments such as Iraq and Afghanistan, rather than defining strict aid cut-off thresholds [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/92459/AID-POLICY-Staff-security-bunkerization-versus-acceptance ].

Representatives from ECOWAS, the African Union, the European Union, the UN and Algeria are today closing up a five-day meeting in Bamako where they have been discussing next steps for intervention in northern Mali. At the same time, President Compaoré, representing ECOWAS, is meeting with Islamist group Ansar Dine to try to persuade them to break away from MUJAO; while the Algerian government is meeting other representatives from Ansar Dine in Algiers.

bo/aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96720/BURKINA-FASO-NIGER-Aid-agencies-tighten-security</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201208141030390906t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">OUAGADOUGOU/DAKAR 06 November 2012 (IRIN) - Aid agencies have stepped up security measures in Burkina Faso and Niger as the threat of kidnappings by Islamist groups mounts.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>BURKINA FASO: Preventing conflict between farmers and herders</title><pubDate>Tue, 30 Oct 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201208030828110882t.jpg" />]]>OUAGADOUGOU 30 October 2012 (IRIN) - As violent incidents between animal breeders and sedentary farmers soar across northern and eastern Burkina Faso, the Ministry of Animal Resources has been holding a series of workshops for the two groups, alongside community leaders, local governors and mayors.</description><body><![CDATA[OUAGADOUGOU 30 October 2012 (IRIN) - As violent incidents between animal breeders and sedentary farmers soar across northern and eastern Burkina Faso, the Ministry of Animal Resources has been holding a series of workshops for the two groups, alongside community leaders, local governors and mayors.

The Ministry estimates some 600 conflicts occur each year involving the death of pastoralists, farmers or government workers, the destruction of farms or houses and the injury or death of animals. According to Edithe Vokouma, director of pastoralist affairs in the Ministry, some 55 people have been killed in 4,000 recorded clashes over the past four years, with cases rising year on year.

"It is very serious," said Jérémie Ouedraogo, minister of animal resources in the capital, Ouagadougou. "How can we come to a place where we can use our natural resources together without resorting to conflict? This is the goal we hope to reach."

The most recent recorded case occurred in June in Tapoa in East Region, a largely agro-pastoralist zone where herders attacked the dwellings of forestry agents after a herder was arrested for cutting leaves from a tree to feed his animals, according to Bertin Somda, governor of East Region.

Livestock are an economic mainstay for many families across Burkina Faso, with 80 percent of rural families keeping at least one or two animals to fall back on during hard times. "They act much like a bank account," said Ouedraogo.

Why clashes up

As in much of the Sahel, conflict arises when farmers have encroached on transhumance paths, leading herders to move onto agricultural land to enable their animals to feed. Competition over scarce agricultural land is also mounting as the population grows by 3.1 percent per year, one of the highest rates in the world.

Land scarcity has also been accentuated by land-grabbing by agro-businesses following new land laws that encourage private land ownership; and by the growth of artisanal gold miners who both squeeze herders off transhumance routes but also poison water points with chemicals. Some 800 artisanal mining sites have opened since 2007 [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96210/BURKINA-FASO-Gold-rush-hits-education ].

Many of the clashes in the northern Sahel region fall along ethnic divides between Fulani herders and Mossi farmers.

According to Hassan Barry, president of the Association Tabital Pulaaku, which has worked on mediation since 2010 in high-risk areas across the country, (including Zoundweogo and Nahouri in South-Central Region, Gourma and Kompienga in East Region, Sissili and Ziro in Central-West Region, and Poni and Noumbiel in Southwest Region), conflicts started to become more violent in the early 2000s, a turning-point occurring in 2003 in Balere in East Region, when 10 herders were killed by locals following conflicts over destruction of their crops.

The arrival of 35,000 Malian refugees from the north, most of them pastoralists, is not significantly exacerbating these tensions at the moment said government officials, as pasture remains abundant following the rainy season. However, should tens of thousands more refugees arrive in the wake of military intervention in the north, tensions could rise.

Solutions

The key is prevention, said Barry.

"It is difficult to bring an end to conflict once it has begun. To prevent conflicts from escalating into bloody confrontations between different groups - or even worse, ethnic clashes between people who attend the same mosques, the same markets, who bury their dead together - is very important," he stressed.

Most conflicts arise out of a misunderstanding, on both sides, of land regulations and rules that protect both agricultural land and transhumance paths, he noted.

Understanding has diminished as many pastoralists now send their children (many of whom are illiterate and unaware of the rules) to mind the animals. ''When we were kids there were fewer conflicts because herders were knowledgeable and respectful men,” Barry explained.

Problems often occur at night when animals wander off to graze while farmers are asleep, said Somda.

Under discussion at the workshops are: land regulation; why it is important to protect nomadic paths; and how both farmers and pastoralists or agro-pastoralists can work together to sustainably use natural resources.

Local officials will also encourage farmers and pastoralists to agree on transhumance paths together, to make agreements more binding.

While most conflicts are sorted out by community leaders, a minority are sent to local courts, which need more support to clear cases, said Hassan, as cases may languish for years, keeping community tensions boiling.

He recommends a special court be set up to manage tensions over natural resources to clear outstanding cases; and that a corps of special offices be set up in each municipality to map sites, monitor livestock trails and prevent and settle conflicts.

But to move forward, all groups must also learn how to use limited natural resources more efficiently, said Ouedragogo, noting some 110,000 hectares of forest is cut down each year in Burkina Faso, much of it for commercial purposes, but also to feed animals.

Ouedragogo said the Ministry of Natural resources is trying to encourage herders to store some grass at the end of each harvest so they rely less on wild grass and trees. The Ministry of Animal Resources says it will fund projects that help pastoralists and farmers to harvest six million hay-bales to be stored across the country this year, and will invest US$7 million over several years, to create more water points, reservoirs and holding areas for animals.

But Barry says not enough money goes into protection or promotion of herders: Government spend on livestock was roughly 1.13 percent as of 2005 (more recent figures are not available), despite the sector bringing in 18 percent of GDP and making up a quarter of exports.

Unless more is invested in both herders' needs and to make agriculture more productive, agricultural land will just continue to grow and clashes continue to mount, warned Vokouma from the Ministry of Natural Resources.

bo/aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96663/BURKINA-FASO-Preventing-conflict-between-farmers-and-herders</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201208030828110882t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">OUAGADOUGOU 30 October 2012 (IRIN) - As violent incidents between animal breeders and sedentary farmers soar across northern and eastern Burkina Faso, the Ministry of Animal Resources has been holding a series of workshops for the two groups, alongside community leaders, local governors and mayors.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>Analysis: Sahel crisis - lessons to be learnt</title><pubDate>Thu, 25 Oct 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201202150724010993t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 25 October 2012 (IRIN) - The Sahel food crisis this year put an estimated 18.7 million people at risk of hunger and 1.1 million children at risk of severe malnutrition, prompting the largest humanitarian response the region has ever seen and averting a large-scale disaster. But emergency responses are rarely smooth and there is always room for improvement. IRIN spoke to Sahel aid practitioners, analysts and donors to discuss what hampered the response, and what needs to be done to improve response in the future.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 25 October 2012 (IRIN) - The Sahel food crisis this year put an estimated 18.7 million people at risk of hunger and 1.1 million children at risk of severe malnutrition, prompting the largest humanitarian response the region has ever seen and averting a large-scale disaster. But emergency responses are rarely smooth and there is always room for improvement. IRIN spoke to Sahel aid practitioners, analysts and donors to discuss what hampered the response, and what needs to be done to improve response in the future. 

Early warning messages in competition

As early warning data came in, aid agencies and food security analysts interpreted it very differently, creating some confusion and slightly slowing down the response of donors. The debate “diverted energy away from scale-up, which was the priority,” said Stephen Cockburn, West Africa advocacy adviser for NGO Oxfam [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/94531/Analysis-Getting-early-warning-right-in-the-Sahel ].

The issue lay in different means of interpreting early warning signals - food production across the region was down by just 3 percent, but severely high food prices (30-80 percent higher than the five-year average), lack of jobs, border closures between Niger and Nigeria, and the Mali crisis, were jarring enough to throw people into a crisis, and pushed agencies to call for a US$1 billion (it later became $1.6 billion) aid response [ http://www.unocha.org/crisis/sahel ].

“The circumstances that cause vulnerability have changed,” said Sahel expert Peter Gubbels, with NGO Groundswell International [ http://www.groundswellinternational.org/our-story/ ]. “With food prices that high, you don’t need a drought to spell a crisis, the drought merely stimulated these dynamics.” 

Aid to pastoralists off-rhythm

Pastoralists are affected by food access issues earlier than other groups and need support [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96019/MALI-Pastoralism-between-resilience-and-survival ] to access animal fodder, water, vaccinations and to destock, in March and April, not May and June. 

This need is rarely reflected in early warning or response, said aid agencies. Pastoralists’ needs are still relegated to a few specialist NGOs rather than being addressed through national systems and as a result they remain marginalized, said Gubbels. Further, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), which could be a vocal advocate on their behalf, did not clearly ring the alarm bell to donors on their needs, said NGOs.

Agriculture, health, WASH and education

Donors were swift to fund food security and nutrition efforts and their response “went beyond the traditional nuts and bolts” this year, for instance addressing some of the water and sanitation aspects of malnutrition in their response. But funding to other sectors - notably agriculture, water and sanitation and (particularly relating to the Malian displaced) education - lagged.

“Agriculture is key to rebuilding food security in 2013,” said UN humanitarian coordinator for the Sahel David Gressly, yet FAO had received just one third of its $125 million funding requirement by October, and partly as a result could only reach 53 percent of the 9.9 million people it was targeting (as of the end of August), according to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) [ http://www.unocha.org/crisis/sahel ]. Health was 18 percent funded across the nine affected countries, WASH 24 percent, and education 7 percent, according to OCHA
[ https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/pub?key=0AiHzO7bP7kUtdFFPQnc4TDdBcnRmVHU4Z1JRT3paQkE&single=true&gid=5&output=html ].

“There is no point in saving malnourished children’s lives only to lose them to an epidemic or to diarrhoea or malaria,” said Gressly. “We have a better understanding of the package of interventions required. Now we need to have interventions that cover them.”

Preparedness is also severely under-funded, with disaster risk reduction (DDR) still making up just 4 percent of humanitarian funding. Further, it remains a centralized activity when instead “each district authority needs a plan… Preparedness is not at the national level, that’s DRR 101,” said Gubbels. 

Scale-up better but still slow

While early warning was for the most part good, and most actors across the humanitarian community geared up as fast as they could, time was still lost at the beginning, partly because aid agencies used to working in a development context found it hard to shift into humanitarian gear, noted Cyprien Fabre, head of European Union humanitarian funder ECHO in West Africa. Some NGOs, including Plan International, said funding took a while to trickle down from donors to multilateral agencies and in turn to NGOs. However, speed picked up in early 2012, interviewees agreed.

Finding sufficient francophone technical staff remains a challenge for most aid agencies, said the World Food Programme (WFP) Sahel coordinator Susana Rico, and Oxfam’s Cockburn, noting they each had problems doing so, despite using emergency staff rosters. 

Moderate acute malnutrition still not sufficiently prioritized 

Some three million children were estimated to be moderately acutely malnourished in the Sahel this year, despite greater awareness of the need to prevent moderate acute malnutrition (MAM); initiatives such as the SUN movement [ http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/Scaling_Up_Nutrition.pdf ], which aims to reduce under-nutrition; and a shift in approach from WFP to included MAM prevention through its blanket feeding. National governments and donors still have not prioritized MAM enough, said UNICEF West Africa nutrition adviser Felicité Tchibindat. More help is needed through national health and nutrition strategies, cleaner water and sanitation and better education on nutrition and public health, say experts.

Food pipeline delays

Despite good early warning, better use of regional markets (where one third of the food aid was sourced) and much faster procurement procedures; border closures, insecurity, and other logistical challenges led to food pipeline delays in some countries, notably Chad and Niger [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95068/CHAD-Alarm-rung-late-food-running-out ].

In Chad WFP had to resort to transporting food through Sudan, which is a long and insecure route requiring escorts. “It was a painful exercise,” said Rico. Rations in Niger had to be cut and targeted to fewer people because of shortages. But it is “always going to be tough sourcing food from so many different pipelines over such a vast region,” said Rico, particularly when constrained by insecurity in Nigeria and Mali, and the combination of rains and poor roads. WFP staff met last week at its Rome headquarters to figure out how to continue to improve its supply-chain. 

Appeals late

There was no regional West Africa humanitarian appeal launched in 2011 or 2012, leaving fundraising to a series of national appeals, some of which were early (Niger) but others which came as late as June, creating confusion over how much money was needed for the crisis. UN and NGO humanitarian leadership group the Inter-Agency Standing Committee estimated US$724 million was needed based on initial appeals, a figure that was in use until June 2012, despite agencies predicting in January that they would need at least $1.2 billion; and WFP alone stating it would need $808 million to address food security. The figure has since been revised up to $1.6 billion. On the whole, donors gave more, and more quickly, to the Sahel this year, said OCHA head of programmes in West Africa Noel Tsekouras, but some say the confusion eroded the confidence of smaller bilateral donors to fund in large quantities. 

Resilience must go beyond humanitarians

The resilience message is getting through to donors and some are already trying out more flexible funding - such as the US Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance, which enables quick scale-up of development activities into humanitarian - but the resilience debate is relegated mainly to humanitarian circles, not development actors [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96549/AID-POLICY-Resisting-the-mantra-of-resilience ].

“Development actors remain in the neo-liberal paradigm where economic growth will help people out of poverty… but robust economic growth in the Sahel has been coupled with increasing food insecurity and malnutrition - there is something wrong with the development model,” said Gubbels. 

Investment in agriculture - key to resilience in the Sahel - tends to focus on high-input development in areas of the Sahel with high potential (such as southern Mali), overlooking small-scale farmers who grow in ecologically fragile zones [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95258/NIGER-CHAD-Is-sustainable-agriculture-possible-in-the-Sahel ]. Look to Brazil for inspiration, says Gubbels, which has two agriculture ministries: one focuses on exports, the second on the needs of small-scale peasant farmers. 

Social protection schemes for the poorest are also fairly undeveloped in the Sahel - be they targeted cash or food distributions (from national reserves), employment programmes, or healthcare benefits for children - and need to be prioritized. Niger is talking about social protection, but others need to do the same, says Gubbels. 

Avoid knee-jerk market interventions

As opposed to 2010, when food markets functioned quite well, in 2011-2012 prices in some markets were 80 percent higher than the five-year average, meaning any efforts to lower prices would have to be at an enormous scale to have an impact, said WFP food security analyst, Jean-Martin Bauer. Thus when national governments subsidized and made available their national cereal stocks, it did not have a widespread impact (other than in Mauritanian capital Nouakchott) as the amounts were too small. 

“It is also a very expensive intervention,” Bauer told IRIN. “A better use of money would be to target aid to the most vulnerable groups.” 

Some governments took a knee-jerk response to restrict trade - for instance, Burkina Faso stopped cereal trade to Niger during the lean season - but rather than lower prices domestically, it slowed down domestic trade, as wholesalers held back their available stocks, noted Bauer.

Trade was also restricted between Mali and its neighbours Burkina Faso and Mauritania, partly linked to insecurity. All West African states need to come together to set up a common agricultural market, which would enable surpluses and deficits to better work themselves out, and could stabilize prices across the region, Bauer said.

The scale-up of cash and cash vouchers is generally seen as a positive development, but given the volatility and dynamism of West African food markets (“here markets can change completely every year,” remarked Bauer), a better understanding of when to choose food or cash is needed, he said. “The type of analysis we need in the humanitarian sector must start to change.”

SAHEL: What went right in the crisis response? [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96632/SAHEL-What-went-right-in-the-crisis-response ]

aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96638/Analysis-Sahel-crisis-lessons-to-be-learnt</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201202150724010993t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 25 October 2012 (IRIN) - The Sahel food crisis this year put an estimated 18.7 million people at risk of hunger and 1.1 million children at risk of severe malnutrition, prompting the largest humanitarian response the region has ever seen and averting a large-scale disaster. But emergency responses are rarely smooth and there is always room for improvement. IRIN spoke to Sahel aid practitioners, analysts and donors to discuss what hampered the response, and what needs to be done to improve response in the future.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>SAHEL: What went right in the crisis response?</title><pubDate>Wed, 24 Oct 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201203281250000577t.jpg" />]]>DAKAR 24 October 2012 (IRIN) - Sahelians are used to living on the edge and doing all they can to overcome adversity. In 2011, the combined shocks of ongoing high food prices, an end to remittances from Libya, poor harvests across much of the region, and conflict in northern Mali, had a disproportionate effect on the fragile food security situation and the region’s economy: An estimated 18.7 million people are at risk of hunger and 1.1 million at risk of severe malnutrition this year.</description><body><![CDATA[DAKAR 24 October 2012 (IRIN) - Sahelians are used to living on the edge and doing all they can to overcome adversity. In 2011, the combined shocks of ongoing high food prices [ http://www.irinnews.org/In-Depth/77872/72/A-global-food-crisis ], an end to remittances from Libya [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/93098/CHAD-The-Libya-fallout ], poor harvests across much of the region, and conflict in northern Mali, had a disproportionate effect on the fragile food security situation and the region’s economy: An estimated 18.7 million people are at risk of hunger and 1.1 million at risk of severe malnutrition this year [ http://www.unocha.org/crisis/sahel ].

The situation catalysed the largest humanitarian response the region has ever seen and it is widely agreed that this helped avert a large-scale disaster. As Martin Dawes, West Africa media head of the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), put it: “The greatest success is that the severest form of African clichés was avoided, based on timely intervention.” 

IRIN spoke to aid agencies, donors and Sahel experts to find out where the crisis response worked better this year.*

Early warning worked

Donors and agencies had been “stung” by criticisms of their late response to the Horn of Africa drought in July 2011, spurring them to respond earlier and more quickly in the Sahel three months later, said Peter Gubbels with NGO Groundswell International [ http://www.groundswellinternational.org/our-story/ ] and co-author of Escaping the Hunger Cycle: Pathways to Resilience in the Sahel [ http://www.groundswellinternational.org/wp-content/uploads/Pathways-to-Resilience-in-the-Sahel.pdf ]. “They avoided the worst and took early action,” said Gubbels. 

Early warning reports came out in October in some places; before December national governments (other than Senegal and Gambia) had recognized the early warning signals and reacted to them; and response started to scale up from January onwards. 

Data on who was in need and how, is much more accurate now that governments and aid agencies across the Sahel systematically carry out SMART [ http://www.smartmethodology.org/ ] surveys (a methodology that gives an accurate assessment of the severity of a crisis by analysing the nutritional status of infants, and population mortality rates) every lean season; and have taken on household economy analysis (HEA) which gives a fuller, more nuanced picture of how vulnerable families are thrown into crisis.

“This is a major improvement on how to identify vulnerability and greatest need,” said Gubbels. HEAs in Burkina Faso for instance, identified food-insecure households in areas untouched by drought.

More money sooner

Donors have pumped US$971 million into the region since the end of 2011; and when compared month by month to the drought response in 2010, more money came in and sooner, with big announcements from multilaterals such as the UN Central Emergency Response Fund ($80 million) and the European Union humanitarian funder ECHO in November (ECHO and the European Commission have provided $410 million for the food crisis).The USA then gave $315 million; with smaller donors such as the UK and France following suit in January [ http://ochaonline.un.org/OchaLinkClick.aspx?link=ocha&docId=1351404 ].

“Donors pumped in money from the beginning,” said West Africa advocacy adviser with NGO Oxfam, Stephen Cockburn. The crisis maintained a fairly high profile throughout the year: “We never had so many high-profile visits to our area over a condensed period,” said Gubbels. 

However, despite increased donor action, funding is still at just 59 percent of the $1.6 billion estimated needs. 

National governments took lead

Many national governments led on the response, and nutrition systems are now in place in most Sahelian countries, said nutrition adviser for UNICEF, Felicité Tchibindat. 

Niger stands out, raising the alarm in October and using sophisticated early warning systems. It scaled up the nutrition response system that has been going since the 2010 crisis, scaled up nutrition training as part of its national nutrition protocol, and is now ahead of the game resilience-wise, says Oxfam. The country has nearly halved the death rate of under-fives since 1998 [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96357/NIGER-Child-mortality-slashed ].

Chad has also made significant progress since the beginning of the year, taking on a nutrition protocol, setting up referral systems, and training hundreds of health workers in nutrition [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95093/CHAD-Fighting-malnutrition-with-dysfunctional-health-sector ]. Even Nigeria now accepts SMARTs, noted Tchibindat [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95751/NIGERIA-Owning-up-to-food-insecurity-in-the-north ].

Malnutrition stigma has dissipated: Governments that several years ago, sought to hide or gloss over malnutrition as they deemed it shameful, are now confronting it. “Nutrition, hunger and poverty will always be shaming subjects, but there is now an openness and dialogue involved,” said Stéphane Doyon, nutrition expert with Médecins sans Frontières (MSF). 

Niger has made the most progress, from denial in 2005, to undergo “a revolutionary change in attitude,” says Gubbels, and lead agencies in setting up nutrition research, prevention and response.

RUTF supply smoother

Under the agreed regional nutrition response system, UNICEF is charged with supplying all ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) and has an automated local production line in Niger, which has led to increased better quality control, higher production and fewer stock-outs. 

When RUTF supply lines work well “it means we don’t have to worry too much about them and can get on with other things,” said Tchibindat. This was the first time Niger-produced RUTF was used to feed malnourished children in neighbouring countries.

UNICEF estimates some 800,000 children will have been treated for severe acute malnutrition across the Sahel by the end of 2012. “It shouldn’t be shaming to see these numbers [one million children treated in Niger since 2005],” says MSF's Doyon. “It should encourage efforts to do more,” it said, noting that Niger preserved its treatment system even in last year’s bumper harvest.

Moderate acute malnutrition emphasized

“The importance of nutrition was better understood and better-applied,” said UN humanitarian coordinator for the Sahel David Gressly. 

With some three million Sahelian children estimated to suffer from moderate acute malnutrition (MAM), the World Food Programme (WFP) has expanded its regular food security role to incorporate the prevention of MAM, reaching 3.7 million children and their mothers with fortified supplementary food and RTUF, according to Susan Rico, WFP coordinator for the Sahel regional response. The neglect of MAM over the long term in the Sahel has been widely criticized over recent years. 

The supplemental food that WFP uses to address MAM is an improved version of its classic corn-soya blend (CSB). In 2010 CSB+ was created for children over two, adolescents and adults. It is less processed and easier to digest; and CSB++ was made with added milk, oil and sugar, to target moderately malnourished children under two [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95093/CHAD-Fighting-malnutrition-with-dysfunctional-health-sector ].

While attention to MAM needs to be vastly scaled up over the long-term, WFP’s efforts have already had an impact. A preliminary September WFP study in Niger said the strategy had reduced MAM where it was used. 

More cash

WFP distributed cash or vouchers to 2.1 million people as of the end of September, according to Rico, making it the biggest emergency cash distribution the organization has ever attempted. NGOs also stepped up cash distributions across the region. Evaluations have not yet been completed and much more analysis is needed of market conditions and the economic climate as cash transfers are scaled up, said Jean-Martin Bauer, a market analyst with WFP, but cash when used elsewhere has proved more nimble, flexible and quicker to leverage than food distributions, under the right conditions. 

Market interventions 

Some of the government market interventions in response to the crisis paid off on a limited scale, said WFP’s Bauer, notably Mali removing VAT for rice sales to try to stabilize sky-rocketing rice prices; and the government of Mauritania setting up subsidized sales of rice and vegetable oil in the capital, Nouakchott, which had an impact as it was done on a large scale in an urban setting.

Several countries - notably Niger, Mali, Nigeria - have large national grain reserves which help kick-start humanitarian response in times of need, as agencies can use them with a view to replenishing them when their food stocks arrive. 

West African states are on the right path as they have a regional agricultural policy, ECOWAP, but need to implement it, says Bauer, and take it further to create a common market policy where countries standardize import taxes on cereals, create regional grain reserves, clamp down on the region-wide racketeering that ups food prices, and take other measures to enable the region to better meet the climate and economic shocks that are inevitable in the future. 

Procurement quicker

WFP can now buy food on loan, paying once donor funds arrive, which speeds up procurement in some cases by up to 100 days, said Rico. Increasing regional procurement to one third of the total also sped up response. Rico estimates WFP reached eight million people with food aid or cash vouchers, which represents an estimated 80 percent of those in need. 

Governments, donors more resilience-minded

Donors are slowly understanding the importance of building resilience in the Sahel. “Due to this crisis, governments are now more open to talk about food insecurity, resilience, nutrition,” said ECHO head in West Africa Cyprien Fabré. 

In July 2012 the governments of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), WFP, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), CILLS (Inter-state Committee to fight drought in the Sahel) and donors launched the Agir Sahel initiative (Global Alliance for resilience) to help Sahelians cope with future shocks partly by focusing more on agriculture. 

The UN is currently formulating its Sahel resilience strategy. And affected governments are also getting better at resilience - Burkina Faso’s government is focusing more on small-scale agriculture; Niger’s government is considering boosting social safety nets. 

They should look to Ethiopia for inspiration, says Gubbels, where the government has set up a system to get cash or food to seven million of its most vulnerable citizens within two months when there is a shock. “There is nothing similar in the Sahel from what I can see,” said Gubbels. 

What next?

Don’t drop the ball, say Sahel experts. This year’s harvest is not expected to be bad, and cereal prices are beginning their seasonal fall, but like every other year, over half a million children will be acutely malnourished in the Sahel this year. “The question now is where we go next,” said MSF’s Doyon. “Of course you need additional development action [to build resilience], but that shouldn’t supplant all that’s been done to gear up on health and nutrition over the past years.”

There is “a lot of good will and rhetoric,” said Gressly. “But will that be translated into operations? If it doesn’t, the status quo will be maintained and we’ll be back to where we were this year,” he warned.

Analysis: Sahel crisis - lessons to be learnt [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96638/Analysis-Sahel-crisis-lessons-to-be-learnt ]

aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96632/SAHEL-What-went-right-in-the-crisis-response</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201203281250000577t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">DAKAR 24 October 2012 (IRIN) - Sahelians are used to living on the edge and doing all they can to overcome adversity. In 2011, the combined shocks of ongoing high food prices, an end to remittances from Libya, poor harvests across much of the region, and conflict in northern Mali, had a disproportionate effect on the fragile food security situation and the region’s economy: An estimated 18.7 million people are at risk of hunger and 1.1 million at risk of severe malnutrition this year.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>BURKINA FASO-NIGER: ICJ completes hearings on border dispute</title><pubDate>Thu, 18 Oct 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210181132010393t.jpg" />]]>THE HAGUE/OUGADOUGOU 18 October 2012 (IRIN) - Ordinary people in two of West Africa’s poorest countries stand to gain if conflict is avoided and a long-standing border dispute is resolved amicably: As hearings at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague on the Burkina Faso-Niger border ended on 17 October, delegations from both countries expressed hope the verdict will strengthen relations between them.</description><body><![CDATA[THE HAGUE/OUGADOUGOU 18 October 2012 (IRIN) - Ordinary people in two of West Africa’s poorest countries stand to gain if conflict is avoided and a long-standing border dispute is resolved amicably: As hearings at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague on the Burkina Faso-Niger border ended on 17 October, delegations from both countries expressed hope the verdict will strengthen relations between them.

Low-level tension has been simmering for years between Niger and Burkina Faso over their 650km border. The dispute originated in 1927 when the then colonial power, France, imprecisely demarcated the border in an administrative decree.

''I hope the judgment of the court will help further strengthen the good relations between our two countries,'' Niger’s foreign minister, Bazoum Mohamed, told reporters at the close of the hearings.

The judgement is due in four to six months.

The ICJ must determine the Burkina Faso-Niger border based on the description used in the colonial decree as well as on the details of a 1987 agreement reached by a joint technical commission to address the issue.

The two countries have tried to work out the issue peacefully in the past without resorting to the ICJ: In 2006 leaders in the border regions met to dissipate tensions caused by incursions by security forces and customs officials on either side of the border. A compromise stipulated that each party must inform the other before undertaking any infrastructure development.

But tensions did not dissipate, said Bazoum, with ongoing disagreements over issues such as Nigerien military police allegedly working on Burkinabe territory; or Burkinabe schools operating on Niger-claimed land.

Under dispute are both pastoralist Sahelian land and a forestry zone appropriate for agriculture, said Burkinabe geographer Claude Obin Tapsoba.

Both countries have submitted boundary cases before to the ICJ: In 2005 the ICJ resolved a dispute between Niger and Benin, and in 1986 between Burkina Faso and Mali.

The African Union Border Programme encourages African states to clearly define their borders by 2012.

The implementation of agreements can drag on - as has been the case with the ICJ’s 2002 ruling over Bakassi on the border between Cameroon and Nigeria.

Burkina Faso and Niger have 18 months to implement any ICJ decision.

bo/aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96586/BURKINA-FASO-NIGER-ICJ-completes-hearings-on-border-dispute</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210181132010393t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">THE HAGUE/OUGADOUGOU 18 October 2012 (IRIN) - Ordinary people in two of West Africa’s poorest countries stand to gain if conflict is avoided and a long-standing border dispute is resolved amicably: As hearings at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague on the Burkina Faso-Niger border ended on 17 October, delegations from both countries expressed hope the verdict will strengthen relations between them.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>BURKINA FASO-MALI: “We cannot live under the law of strangers”</title><pubDate>Wed, 03 Oct 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210030959520097t.jpg" />]]>MENTAO 03 October 2012 (IRIN) - The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) estimates some 107,000 Malians, most of them Arabs and Tuaregs, fled across the border to Burkina Faso, many leaving as early as February when the Tuareg National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) launched their first attacks against Malian government targets.</description><body><![CDATA[MENTAO 03 October 2012 (IRIN) - The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) estimates some 107,000 Malians, most of them Arabs and Tuaregs, fled across the border to Burkina Faso, many leaving as early as February when the Tuareg National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) launched their first attacks against Malian government targets.

In April Islamic groups Ansar Dine, the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO), and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) wrested control of northern Mali from the MNLA and swiftly imposed repressive Sharia law across the region, insisting women be veiled, stoning civilians to death, amputating alleged criminals, publicly flogging residents and destroying religious shrines, according to human rights groups. Several hundred children are believed to have been recruited into their forces.

Among the Malian refugees and those who are internally displaced, most of the ethnic Tuaregs have told IRIN they are too scared to return as long as these groups control the north, fearing violence and repression, but also reprisal attacks on Tuaregs.

Tuareg refugee Mohamed-Ag Ibrahim, who fled Timbuktu with his wife and seven children, told IRIN: “We fear reprisals from the community, like in the rebellion in the 1990s. And now Islamists have come… and started to judge people, cut off their hands. The ones that did not leave are stuck there... We cannot live under the law of strangers.”

Plans currently under discussion to send in a joint Malian army-ECOWAS military operation [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96436/Analysis-Towards-intervention-in-Mali ] to oust the Islamists are likely to cause further displacement of civilians.

“We are very worried that further fighting will bring a new wave of refugees,” said UNHCR representative in Burkina Faso Ibrahima Coly. The Burkina Faso authorities have worked hard to accommodate arriving Malians, but have expressed concerns that they are stretched to the limit and cannot further expand their services.

Slideshow: http://www.irinnews.org/photo/Default.aspx?id=66

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96444/BURKINA-FASO-MALI-We-cannot-live-under-the-law-of-strangers</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201210030959520097t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">MENTAO 03 October 2012 (IRIN) - The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) estimates some 107,000 Malians, most of them Arabs and Tuaregs, fled across the border to Burkina Faso, many leaving as early as February when the Tuareg National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) launched their first attacks against Malian government targets.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>NIGER: Agencies scramble to repair schools after floods</title><pubDate>Wed, 26 Sep 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201209261300400518t.jpg" />]]>NIAMEY 26 September 2012 (IRIN) - The government of Niger and aid agencies are scrambling to clean and repair thousands of schools that were damaged in the flooding from rains in July and August, which displaced over 500,000 people and killed over 80, in an effort to return children to school as soon as possible.</description><body><![CDATA[NIAMEY 26 September 2012 (IRIN) - The government of Niger and aid agencies are scrambling to clean and repair thousands of schools that were damaged in the flooding from rains in July and August, which displaced over 500,000 people and killed over 80, in an effort to return children to school as soon as possible. 

The worst-hit areas were Dosso in the southwest, Tillabéri in the west and Niamey Region, which includes the capital. Altogether, 150 of the country’s 366 communes were affected, making the floods the worst the country has seen in 80 years, according to Oxfam. [ http://reliefweb.int/report/niger/worst-flooding-more-80-years-affecting-half-million-people-niger ]

The humanitarian response, from both the government and aid agencies, was swift, with thousands of food packages and non-food items distributed, says Modibo Traoré, head of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) in Niger, but recovery needs are now underfunded.

Some 1.5 million people were displaced or had their homes damaged in flooding across West Africa this rainy season, according to OCHA. 

Early recovery needs

The government has an early recovery plan, “but it needs funding,” said Traoré.

Some US$2.5 million from the Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) has been released for flood response, but none of it has gone to rehabilitate schools, as education is not considered to be “life-saving”.

The UN Development Programme (UNDP) is being given $1 million to rehabilitate 1,000 damaged health centres, most of them in Dosso and Tillabéri.

Schools are supposed to re-open on 27 September, but this will likely be delayed - some by as much as several weeks - say aid workers. “There is lots of work to do. Two weeks is not enough to do it all,” Weifane Ibrahim, Oxfam’s Niger education coordinator, told IRIN.

Displaced families fled to some 80 schools and other public buildings following the floods, but most of these buildings have since been vacated, with families receiving cash vouchers, basic supplies and encouragement to stay with host families. 

“The sooner our schools are freed up, the quicker we can continue class,” said Hima Achana, communication secretary at the National Teachers Union in Niger. 

“Early recovery is the priority now - houses, schools, health centres, community centres, mosques and water points all need to be rebuilt,” stressed Traoré. 

Floods also destroyed some 7,000 hectares of crops, leaving farmers in need of tools and seeds so they can start again. 

Forced resettlement

Too many families have settled in floodplains along the Niger River and must be relocated, says the government. Many block run-off water from the river, exacerbating floods, while some families in the Niamey region have settled on the riverbed itself, which is dry for most of the year.

Niamey Governor Aichatou Boulama Kane has announced that families will be relocated in coming months, noting that the government has designated appropriate locations for them. 

This approach has not worked in the past; in 2010, some 900 families were given $1,000 to relocate, and then ended up just moving back to their original site, which was near the river and thus aided irrigated agriculture. But the government, then transitional, is now more firmly installed and should have more success this time around, Traoré predicted. 

Thousands of Niamey families who lost their homes are calling on the government to help them with temporary shelter and rebuilding. 

At Saga 1, a riverside village on the outskirts of Niamey, many homeless families have settled in with extended family or friends and are waiting for help. “They asked us to leave the schools where we were sheltering, but as of now no one has shown us the site where we’ll be moving,” said Mahamane Issa, 40. 

The government has promised to do so, with the help of its partners.

bb/aj/rz

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96395/NIGER-Agencies-scramble-to-repair-schools-after-floods</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201209261300400518t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">NIAMEY 26 September 2012 (IRIN) - The government of Niger and aid agencies are scrambling to clean and repair thousands of schools that were damaged in the flooding from rains in July and August, which displaced over 500,000 people and killed over 80, in an effort to return children to school as soon as possible.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title>BURKINA FASO: Low-cost steps for long-term food security</title><pubDate>Tue, 18 Sep 2012 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate><description><![CDATA[<img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201209181344100406t.jpg" />]]>OUAHIGOUYA 18 September 2012 (IRIN) - From rocks hemming in water on farms to large surface reservoirs for irrigation, farmers in northern Burkina Faso, where recent good rains have turned dry fields into lush croplands, are being encouraged to use low-cost techniques to boost output and ride out recurrent droughts.</description><body><![CDATA[OUAHIGOUYA 18 September 2012 (IRIN) - From rocks hemming in water on farms to large surface reservoirs for irrigation, farmers in northern Burkina Faso, where recent good rains have turned dry fields into lush croplands, are being encouraged to use low-cost techniques to boost output and ride out recurrent droughts [ http://www.irinnews.org/Theme/SAH/Sahel-Crisis ].

Furrows and ridges channel and hold water on farms around Ouahigouya in the country’s arid North Region, where subsistence agriculture is the main source of income.

“We have to work on productivity… Much of the land needs to be restored. It needs compost and water catchment measures,” said Amidou Ouattara, director of the Association for Rural Development and Training (AFDR), a local NGO in the region.  

“Rainfall is erratic [ http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/news/index_en.html ]. Sometimes it’s too much and other times it’s not enough. It is also poorly distributed.” 

AFDR has trained hundreds of farmers in Ouahigouya to revamp simple traditional methods to capture and store rainwater. Ouattara said farmers using the techniques have seen their yields improve.

“Many of our trainees who used to produce 400-500kg of millet per hectare in a good year now produce a ton. Things will definitely improve as other farmers look at their neighbours and become eager to invest in their fields,” he said.

“People around here didn’t harvest much last year. I have been lucky. I have been able to fill my granary,” said Ousmane Sawadogo, a farmer in Ouahigouya. But luck is not exactly what made Sawadogo’s field more fertile than his neighbours’. “I have put in a lot of work in my field and it worked out,” added Sawadogo who uses different water catchment methods learnt from AFDR.

Some two million [ http://www.unocha.org/where-we-work/all-countries/burkina-faso ] people have been affected by severe food shortages and high food prices in Burkina Faso in 2012. However, this year’s growing season [ http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/BF_FSOU_2012_08_en.pdf ] is estimated to be better than average in most of the regions and average in a few, USAID’s Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS NET) said.

Storing water

Terre Verte, another NGO in the region, rallied around 50 farmers through the World Food Programme (WFP) cash-for-work programme to build two large surface reservoirs that can store enough water to irrigate fields throughout the eight-month long dry season [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/94223/BURKINA-FASO-Blue-revolution-needed-to-boost-dry-season-harvest ].

“Water catchment is difficult. Rainfall varies from one year to another, but what threatens harvest is that people don’t know how to store rainwater. Heavy rains don’t make a difference if you don’t know how to channel and store it,” said Pamoussa Sawadogo of Terre Verte.

“You also need to have plant varieties adapted to the situation. But we need training, coordination and a lot of work to do that.”

Ariane Waldvogel, WFP’s deputy director in Burkina Faso, told IRIN: “We are in the third phase of the food crisis and the most critical - the lean period. We need to feed the population until the end of the harvests in October now that food reserves have been depleted.”  WFP feeds some 1.7 million people in Burkina Faso.

“We had some fears at the beginning of July. But now, the first signs are positive. There has been sufficient rain, but production will not necessarily yield [a] surplus.”

Floods

The Permanent Inter-State Committee on the Fight Against Drought in the Sahel (CILSS) on 7 September predicted [ https://www.cilss.bf/IMG/pdf/avis_pregec_dakar_sept2012.pdf ] a general good harvest in most of the West Africa region following the current rainy season, but also warned that floods in some countries could affect output and that low yields were expected in certain regions of Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Nigeria and Niger. 

The recent flooding [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96313/WEST-AFRICA-After-the-drought-floods-and-harvest-worries ] across West Africa and the Sahel has caused worry that harvests could be affected, but the extent of the damage is not clear yet.

“This year I planted millet and beans. The harvest will be better than last year,” said Philibert Sawadogo, a resident of Kongoussi in Burkina Faso’s North Region. “But our fields are now flooded. I am worried about that.” 

The Sahel food crisis has left more than 18 million people facing starvation. In addition to its own food crisis, Burkina Faso also hosts 107,929 Malian refugees [ http://reliefweb.int/report/burkina-faso/unicef-burkina-faso-monthly-situation-report-27-august-2012 ] forced from their homes by drought and conflict.

At a WFP food distribution centre in Namissiguima, a small town in the North Region, Ibata Maiga, whose family had been forced to eat wild plants for lack of food, said food was still unavailable in the local markets. “We are out of food. Last year’s harvests were very bad,” Maiga told IRIN.

“The Sahel remains one of the world’s most fragile regions and global warming is likely to pose even more challenges to the land and water supplies,” said Irina Fuhrmann, Oxfam’s regional media manager for West Africa.

mab/ob/aj/cb

]]></body><link>http://www.irinnews.org/Report/96335/BURKINA-FASO-Low-cost-steps-for-long-term-food-security</link><content:encoded><![CDATA[<table cellpadding="3"><tr><td valign="top"><img src="http://www.irinnews.org/images/2012/201209181344100406t.jpg"/></td><td valign="top">OUAHIGOUYA 18 September 2012 (IRIN) - From rocks hemming in water on farms to large surface reservoirs for irrigation, farmers in northern Burkina Faso, where recent good rains have turned dry fields into lush croplands, are being encouraged to use low-cost techniques to boost output and ride out recurrent droughts.</td></tr></table>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>